Modeling familial cancer with induced pluripotent stem cells.

In vitro modeling of human disease has recently become feasible with induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology. Here, we established patient-derived iPSCs from a Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) family and investigated the role of mutant p53 in the development of osteosarcoma (OS). LFS iPSC-derived osteoblasts (OBs) recapitulated OS features including defective osteoblastic differentiation as well as tumorigenic ability. Systematic analyses revealed that the expression of genes enriched in LFS-derived OBs strongly correlated with decreased time to tumor recurrence and poor patient survival. Furthermore, LFS OBs exhibited impaired upregulation of the imprinted gene H19 during osteogenesis. Restoration of H19 expression in LFS OBs facilitated osteoblastic differentiation and repressed tumorigenic potential. By integrating human imprinted gene network (IGN) into functional genomic analyses, we found that H19 mediates suppression of LFS-associated OS through the IGN component DECORIN (DCN). In summary, these findings demonstrate the feasibility of studying inherited human cancer syndromes with iPSCs.

Statistical mechanics of pluripotency.

Recent reports using single-cell profiling have indicated a remarkably dynamic view of pluripotent stem cell identity. Here, we argue that the pluripotent state is not well defined at the single-cell level but rather is a statistical property of stem cell populations, amenable to analysis using the tools of statistical mechanics and information theory.

Wdr5 mediates self-renewal and reprogramming via the embryonic stem cell core transcriptional network.

The embryonic stem (ES) cell transcriptional and chromatin-modifying networks are critical for self-renewal maintenance. However, it remains unclear whether these networks functionally interact and, if so, what factors mediate such interactions. Here, we show that WD repeat domain 5 (Wdr5), a core member of the mammalian Trithorax (trxG) complex, positively correlates with the undifferentiated state and is a regulator of ES cell self-renewal. We demonstrate that Wdr5, an "effector" of H3K4 methylation, interacts with the pluripotency transcription factor Oct4. Genome-wide protein localization and transcriptome analyses demonstrate overlapping gene regulatory functions between Oct4 and Wdr5. The Oct4-Sox2-Nanog circuitry and trxG cooperate in activating transcription of key self-renewal regulators, and furthermore, Wdr5 expression is required for the efficient formation of induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells. We propose an integrated model of transcriptional and epigenetic control, mediated by select trxG members, for the maintenance of ES cell self-renewal and somatic cell reprogramming.

A genome-wide RNAi screen identifies opposing functions of Snai1 and Snai2 on the Nanog dependency in reprogramming.

Nanog facilitates embryonic stem cell self-renewal and induced pluripotent stem cell generation during the final stage of reprogramming. From a genome-wide small interfering RNA screen using a Nanog-GFP reporter line, we discovered opposing effects of Snai1 and Snai2 depletion on Nanog promoter activity. We further discovered mutually repressive expression profiles and opposing functions of Snai1 and Snai2 during Nanog-driven reprogramming. We found that Snai1, but not Snai2, is both a transcriptional target and protein partner of Nanog in reprogramming. Ectopic expression of Snai1 or depletion of Snai2 greatly facilitates Nanog-driven reprogramming. Snai1 (but not Snai2) and Nanog cobind to and transcriptionally activate pluripotency-associated genes including Lin28 and miR-290-295. Ectopic expression of miR-290-295 cluster genes partially rescues reprogramming inefficiency caused by Snai1 depletion. Our study thus uncovers the interplay between Nanog and mesenchymal factors Snai1 and Snai2 in the transcriptional regulation of pluripotency-associated genes and miRNAs during the Nanog-driven reprogramming process.

Systems biology of stem cell fate and cellular reprogramming.

Stem cell differentiation and the maintenance of self-renewal are intrinsically complex processes requiring the coordinated dynamic expression of hundreds of genes and proteins in precise response to external signalling cues. Numerous recent reports have used both experimental and computational techniques to dissect this complexity. These reports suggest that the control of cell fate has both deterministic and stochastic elements: complex underlying regulatory networks define stable molecular 'attractor' states towards which individual cells are drawn over time, whereas stochastic fluctuations in gene and protein expression levels drive transitions between coexisting attractors, ensuring robustness at the population level.

Oncogenic role of SFRP2 in p53-mutant osteosarcoma development via autocrine and paracrine mechanism.

Osteosarcoma (OS), the most common primary bone tumor, is highly metastatic with high chemotherapeutic resistance and poor survival rates. Using induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) generated from Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) patients, we investigate an oncogenic role of secreted frizzled-related protein 2 (SFRP2) in p53 mutation-associated OS development. Interestingly, we find that high SFRP2 expression in OS patient samples correlates with poor survival. Systems-level analyses identified that expression of SFRP2 increases during LFS OS development and can induce angiogenesis. Ectopic SFRP2 overexpression in normal osteoblast precursors is sufficient to suppress normal osteoblast differentiation and to promote OS phenotypes through induction of oncogenic molecules such as FOXM1 and CYR61 in a ß-catenin-independent manner. Conversely, inhibition of SFRP2, FOXM1, or CYR61 represses the tumorigenic potential. In summary, these findings demonstrate the oncogenic role of SFRP2 in the development of p53 mutation-associated OS and that inhibition of SFRP2 is a potential therapeutic strategy.

Bmi-1 cooperates with Foxg1 to maintain neural stem cell self-renewal in the forebrain.

Neural stem cells (NSCs) persist throughout life in two forebrain areas: the subventricular zone (SVZ) and the hippocampus. Why forebrain NSCs self-renew more extensively than those from other regions remains unclear. Prior studies have shown that the polycomb factor Bmi-1 is necessary for NSC self-renewal and that it represses the cell cycle inhibitors p16, p19, and p21. Here we show that overexpression of Bmi-1 enhances self-renewal of forebrain NSCs significantly more than those derived from spinal cord, demonstrating a regional difference in responsiveness. We show that forebrain NSCs require the forebrain-specific transcription factor Foxg1 for Bmi-1-dependent self-renewal, and that repression of p21 is a focus of this interaction. Bmi-1 enhancement of NSC self-renewal is significantly greater with increasing age and passage. Importantly, when Bmi-1 is overexpressed in cultured adult forebrain NSCs, they expand dramatically and continue to make neurons even after multiple passages, when control NSCs have become restricted to glial differentiation. Together these findings demonstrate the importance of Bmi-1 and Foxg1 cooperation to maintenance of NSC multipotency and self-renewal, and establish a useful method for generating abundant forebrain neurons ex vivo, outside the neurogenic niche.

NetExplore: a web server for modeling small network motifs.

MOTIVATION: Quantitative and qualitative assessment of biological data often produces small essential recurrent networks, containing 3-5 components called network motifs. In this context, model solutions for small network motifs represent very high interest. RESULTS: Software package NetExplore has been created in order to generate, classify and analyze solutions for network motifs including up to six network components. NetExplore allows plotting and visualization of the solution's phase spaces and bifurcation diagrams. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION: The current version of NetExplore has been implemented in Perl-CGI and is accessible at the following locations: http://line.bioinfolab.net/nex/NetExplore.htm and http://nex.autosome.ru/nex/NetExplore.htm.

Patient-specific induced pluripotent stem-cell-derived models of LEOPARD syndrome.

The generation of reprogrammed induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from patients with defined genetic disorders holds the promise of increased understanding of the aetiologies of complex diseases and may also facilitate the development of novel therapeutic interventions. We have generated iPSCs from patients with LEOPARD syndrome (an acronym formed from its main features; that is, lentigines, electrocardiographic abnormalities, ocular hypertelorism, pulmonary valve stenosis, abnormal genitalia, retardation of growth and deafness), an autosomal-dominant developmental disorder belonging to a relatively prevalent class of inherited RAS-mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling diseases, which also includes Noonan syndrome, with pleomorphic effects on several tissues and organ systems. The patient-derived cells have a mutation in the PTPN11 gene, which encodes the SHP2 phosphatase. The iPSCs have been extensively characterized and produce multiple differentiated cell lineages. A major disease phenotype in patients with LEOPARD syndrome is hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. We show that in vitro-derived cardiomyocytes from LEOPARD syndrome iPSCs are larger, have a higher degree of sarcomeric organization and preferential localization of NFATC4 in the nucleus when compared with cardiomyocytes derived from human embryonic stem cells or wild-type iPSCs derived from a healthy brother of one of the LEOPARD syndrome patients. These features correlate with a potential hypertrophic state. We also provide molecular insights into signalling pathways that may promote the disease phenotype.

Distribution Analyzer, a methodology for identifying and clustering outlier conditions from single-cell distributions, and its application to a Nanog reporter RNAi screen.

BACKGROUND: Chemical or small interfering (si) RNA screens measure the effects of many independent experimental conditions, each applied to a population of cells (e.g., all of the cells in a well). High-content screens permit a readout (e.g., fluorescence, luminescence, cell morphology) from each cell in the population. Most analysis approaches compare the average effect on each population, precluding identification of outliers that affect the distribution of the reporter in the population but not its average. Other approaches only measure changes to the distribution with a single parameter, precluding accurate distinction and clustering of interesting outlier distributions. RESULTS: We describe a methodology to identify outlier conditions by considering the cell-level measurements from each condition as a sample of an underlying distribution. With appropriate selection of a distance metric, all effects can be embedded in a fixed-dimensionality Euclidean basis, facilitating identification and clustering of biologically interesting outliers. We demonstrate that measurement of distances with the Hellinger distance metric offers substantial computational efficiencies over alternative metrics. We validate this methodology using an RNA interference (RNAi) screen in mouse embryonic stem cells (ESC) with a Nanog reporter. The methodology clusters effects of multiple control siRNAs into their true identities better than conventional approaches describing the median cell fluorescence or the commonly used Kolmogorov-Smirnov distance between the observed fluorescence distribution and the null distribution. It identifies outlier genes with effects on the reporter distribution that would have been missed by other methods. Among them, siRNA targeting Chek1 leads to a wider Nanog reporter fluorescence distribution. Similarly, siRNA targeting Med14 or Med27 leads to a narrower Nanog reporter fluorescence distribution. We confirm the roles of these three genes in regulating pluripotency by mRNA expression and alkaline phosphatase staining using independent short hairpin (sh) RNAs. CONCLUSIONS: Using our methodology, we describe each experimental condition by a probability distribution. Measuring distances between probability distributions permits a multivariate rather than univariate readout. Clustering points derived from these distances allows us to obtain greater biological insight than methods based solely on single parameters. We find several outliers from a mouse ESC RNAi screen that we confirm to be pluripotency regulators. Many of these outliers would have been missed by other analysis methods.

Expression of podocalyxin separates the hematopoietic and vascular potentials of mouse embryonic stem cell-derived mesoderm.

In the mouse embryo and differentiating embryonic stem cells, the hematopoietic, endothelial, and cardiomyocyte lineages are derived from Flk1+ mesodermal progenitors. Here, we report that surface expression of Podocalyxin (Podxl), a member of the CD34 family of sialomucins, can be used to subdivide the Flk1+ cells in differentiating embryoid bodies at day 4.75 into populations that develop into distinct mesodermal lineages. Definitive hematopoietic potential was restricted to the Flk1+Podxl+ population, while the Flk1-negative Podxl+ population displayed only primitive erythroid potential. The Flk1+Podxl-negative population contained endothelial cells and cardiomyocyte potential. Podxl expression distinguishes Flk1+ mesoderm populations in mouse embryos at days 7.5, 8.5, and 9.5 and is a marker of progenitor stage primitive erythroblasts. These findings identify Podxl as a useful tool for separating distinct mesodermal lineages.

Construction and validation of a regulatory network for pluripotency and self-renewal of mouse embryonic stem cells.

A 30-node signed and directed network responsible for self-renewal and pluripotency of mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) was extracted from several ChIP-Seq and knockdown followed by expression prior studies. The underlying regulatory logic among network components was then learned using the initial network topology and single cell gene expression measurements from mESCs cultured in serum/LIF or serum-free 2i/LIF conditions. Comparing the learned network regulatory logic derived from cells cultured in serum/LIF vs. 2i/LIF revealed differential roles for Nanog, Oct4/Pou5f1, Sox2, Esrrb and Tcf3. Overall, gene expression in the serum/LIF condition was more variable than in the 2i/LIF but mostly consistent across the two conditions. Expression levels for most genes in single cells were bimodal across the entire population and this motivated a Boolean modeling approach. In silico predictions derived from removal of nodes from the Boolean dynamical model were validated with experimental single and combinatorial RNA interference (RNAi) knockdowns of selected network components. Quantitative post-RNAi expression level measurements of remaining network components showed good agreement with the in silico predictions. Computational removal of nodes from the Boolean network model was also used to predict lineage specification outcomes. In summary, data integration, modeling, and targeted experiments were used to improve our understanding of the regulatory topology that controls mESC fate decisions as well as to develop robust directed lineage specification protocols.

Systems-level dynamic analyses of fate change in murine embryonic stem cells.

Molecular regulation of embryonic stem cell (ESC) fate involves a coordinated interaction between epigenetic, transcriptional and translational mechanisms. It is unclear how these different molecular regulatory mechanisms interact to regulate changes in stem cell fate. Here we present a dynamic systems-level study of cell fate change in murine ESCs following a well-defined perturbation. Global changes in histone acetylation, chromatin-bound RNA polymerase II, messenger RNA (mRNA), and nuclear protein levels were measured over 5 days after downregulation of Nanog, a key pluripotency regulator. Our data demonstrate how a single genetic perturbation leads to progressive widespread changes in several molecular regulatory layers, and provide a dynamic view of information flow in the epigenome, transcriptome and proteome. We observe that a large proportion of changes in nuclear protein levels are not accompanied by concordant changes in the expression of corresponding mRNAs, indicating important roles for translational and post-translational regulation of ESC fate. Gene-ontology analysis across different molecular layers indicates that although chromatin reconfiguration is important for altering cell fate, it is preceded by transcription-factor-mediated regulatory events. The temporal order of gene expression alterations shows the order of the regulatory network reconfiguration and offers further insight into the gene regulatory network. Our studies extend the conventional systems biology approach to include many molecular species, regulatory layers and temporal series, and underscore the complexity of the multilayer regulatory mechanisms responsible for changes in protein expression that determine stem cell fate.

Zfp281 mediates Nanog autorepression through recruitment of the NuRD complex and inhibits somatic cell reprogramming.

The homeodomain transcription factor Nanog plays an important role in embryonic stem cell (ESC) self-renewal and is essential for acquiring ground-state pluripotency during reprogramming. Understanding how Nanog is transcriptionally regulated is important for further dissecting mechanisms of ESC pluripotency and somatic cell reprogramming. Here, we report that Nanog is subjected to a negative autoregulatory mechanism, i.e., autorepression, in ESCs, and that such autorepression requires the coordinated action of the Nanog partner and transcriptional repressor Zfp281. Mechanistically, Zfp281 recruits the NuRD repressor complex onto the Nanog locus and maintains its integrity to mediate Nanog autorepression and, functionally, Zfp281-mediated Nanog autorepression presents a roadblock to efficient somatic cell reprogramming. Our results identify a unique transcriptional regulatory mode of Nanog gene expression and shed light into the mechanistic understanding of Nanog function in pluripotency and reprogramming.

Patterning pluripotency in embryonic stem cells.

Developmental gradients of morphogens and the formation of boundaries guide the choices between self-renewal and differentiation in stem cells. Still, surprisingly little is known about gene expression signatures of differentiating stem cells at the boundaries between regions. We thus combined inducible gene expression with a microfluidic technology to pattern gene expression in murine embryonic stem cells. Regional depletion of the Nanog transcriptional regulator was achieved through the exposure of cells to microfluidic gradients of morphogens. In this way, we established pluripotency-differentiation boundaries between Nanog expressing cells (pluripotency zone) and Nanog suppressed cells (early differentiation zone) within the same cell population, with a gradient of Nanog expression across the individual cell colonies, to serve as a mimic of the developmental process. Using this system, we identified strong interactions between Nanog and its target genes by constructing a network with Nanog as the root and the measured levels of gene expression in each region. Gene expression patterns at the pluripotency-differentiation boundaries recreated in vitro were similar to those in the developing blastocyst. This approach to the study of cellular commitment at the boundaries between gene expression domains, a phenomenon critical for understanding of early development, has potential to benefit fundamental research of stem cells and their application in regenerative medicine.

Hemp, an mbt domain-containing protein, plays essential roles in hematopoietic stem cell function and skeletal formation.

To clarify the molecular pathways governing hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) development, we screened a fetal liver (FL) HSC cDNA library and identified a unique gene, hematopoietic expressed mammalian polycomb (hemp), encoding a protein with a zinc-finger domain and four malignant brain tumor (mbt) repeats. To investigate its biological role, we generated mice lacking Hemp (hemp(-/-)). Hemp(-/-) mice exhibited a variety of skeletal malformations and died soon after birth. In the FL, hemp was preferentially expressed in the HSC and early progenitor cell fractions, and analyses of fetal hematopoiesis revealed that the number of FL mononuclear cells, including HSCs, was reduced markedly in hemp(-/-) embryos, especially during early development. In addition, colony-forming and competitive repopulation assays demonstrated that the proliferative and reconstitution abilities of hemp(-/-) FL HSCs were significantly impaired. Microarray analysis revealed alterations in the expression levels of several genes implicated in hematopoietic development and differentiation in hemp(-/-) FL HSCs. These results demonstrate that Hemp, an mbt-containing protein, plays essential roles in HSC function and skeletal formation. It is also hypothesized that Hemp might be involved in certain congenital diseases, such as Klippel-Feil anomaly.

Wnt-inhibitory factor 1 dysregulation of the bone marrow niche exhausts hematopoietic stem cells.

The role of Wnt signaling in hematopoietic stem cell fate decisions remains controversial. We elected to dysregulate Wnt signaling from the perspective of the stem cell niche by expressing the pan Wnt inhibitor, Wnt inhibitory factor 1 (Wif1), specifically in osteoblasts. Here we report that osteoblastic Wif1 overexpression disrupts stem cell quiescence, leading to a loss of self-renewal potential. Primitive stem and progenitor populations were more proliferative and elevated in bone marrow and spleen, manifesting an impaired ability to maintain a self-renewing stem cell pool. Exhaustion of the stem cell pool was apparent only in the context of systemic stress by chemotherapy or transplantation of wild-type stem cells into irradiated Wif1 hosts. Paradoxically this is mediated, at least in part, by an autocrine induction of canonical Wnt signaling in stem cells on sequestration of Wnts in the environment. Additional signaling pathways are dysregulated in this model, primarily activated Sonic Hedgehog signaling in stem cells as a result of Wif1-induced osteoblastic expression of Sonic Hedgehog. We find that dysregulation of the stem cell niche by overexpression of an individual component impacts other unanticipated regulatory pathways in a combinatorial manner, ultimately disrupting niche mediated stem cell fate decisions.

Prdm16 is a physiologic regulator of hematopoietic stem cells.

Fetal liver and adult bone marrow hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) renew or differentiate into committed progenitors to generate all blood cells. PRDM16 is involved in human leukemic translocations and is expressed highly in some karyotypically normal acute myeloblastic leukemias. As many genes involved in leukemogenic fusions play a role in normal hematopoiesis, we analyzed the role of Prdm16 in the biology of HSCs using Prdm16-deficient mice. We show here that, within the hematopoietic system, Prdm16 is expressed very selectively in the earliest stem and progenitor compartments, and, consistent with this expression pattern, is critical for the establishment and maintenance of the HSC pool during development and after transplantation. Prdm16 deletion enhances apoptosis and cycling of HSCs. Expression analysis revealed that Prdm16 regulates a remarkable number of genes that, based on knockout models, both enhance and suppress HSC function, and affect quiescence, cell cycling, renewal, differentiation, and apoptosis to various extents. These data suggest that Prdm16 may be a critical node in a network that contains negative and positive feedback loops and integrates HSC renewal, quiescence, apoptosis, and differentiation.

Single transcription factor reprogramming of hair follicle dermal papilla cells to induced pluripotent stem cells.

Reprogramming patient-specific somatic cells into induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells has great potential to develop feasible regenerative therapies. However, several issues need to be resolved such as ease, efficiency, and safety of generation of iPS cells. Many different cell types have been reprogrammed, most conveniently even peripheral blood mononuclear cells. However, they typically require the enforced expression of several transcription factors, posing mutagenesis risks as exogenous genetic material. To reduce this risk, iPS cells were previously generated with Oct4 alone from rather inaccessible neural stem cells that endogenously express the remaining reprogramming factors and very recently from fibroblasts with Oct4 alone in combination with additional small molecules. Here, we exploit that dermal papilla (DP) cells from hair follicles in the skin express all but one reprogramming factors to show that these accessible cells can be reprogrammed into iPS cells with the single transcription factor Oct4 and without further manipulation. Reprogramming was already achieved after 3 weeks and with efficiencies similar to other cell types reprogrammed with four factors. Dermal papilla-derived iPS cells are comparable to embryonic stem cells with respect to morphology, gene expression, and pluripotency. We conclude that DP cells may represent a preferred cell type for reprogramming accessible cells with less manipulation and for ultimately establishing safe conditions in the future by replacing Oct4 with small molecules.