Pediatric Injury Transfer Patterns During the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Interrupted time Series Analysis.

INTRODUCTION: With the expected surge of adult patients with COVID-19, the Children's Hospital Association recommended a tiered approach to divert children to pediatric centers. Our objective was understanding changes in interfacility transfer to Pediatric Trauma Centers (PTCs) during the first 6 mo of the pandemic. METHODS: Children aged < 18 y injured between January 1, 2016 and September 30, 2020, who met National Trauma Databank inclusion criteria from 9 PTCs were included. An interrupted time-series analysis was used to estimate an expected number of transferred patients compared to observed volume. The "COVID" cohort was compared to a historical cohort (historical average [HA]), using an average across 2016-2019. Site-based differences in transfer volume, demographics, injury characteristics, and hospital-based outcomes were compared between cohorts. RESULTS: Twenty seven thousand thirty one/47,382 injured patients (57.05%) were transferred to a participating PTC during the study period. Of the COVID cohort, 65.4% (4620/7067) were transferred, compared to 55.7% (3281/5888) of the HA (P < 0.001). There was a decrease in 15-y-old to 17-y-old patients (10.43% COVID versus 12.64% HA, P = 0.003). More patients in the COVID cohort had injury severity scores ≤ 15 (93.25% COVID versus 87.63% HA, P < 0.001). More patients were discharged home after transfer (31.80% COVID versus 21.83% HA, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Transferred trauma patients to Level I PTC increased during the COVID-19 pandemic. The proportion of transferred patients discharged from emergency departments increased. Pediatric trauma transfers may be a surrogate for referring emergency department capacity and resources and a measure of pediatric trauma triage capability.

Evaluating the Regional Differences in Pediatric Injury Patterns During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

INTRODUCTION: Reports of pediatric injury patterns during the COVID-19 pandemic are conflicting and lack the granularity to explore differences across regions. We hypothesized there would be considerable variation in injury patterns across pediatric trauma centers in the United States. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A multicenter, retrospective study evaluating patients <18 y old with traumatic injuries meeting National Trauma Data Bank criteria was performed. Patients injured after stay-at-home orders through September 2020 ("COVID" cohort) were compared to "Historical" controls from an averaged period of equivalent dates in 2016-2019. Differences in injury type, intent, and mechanism were explored at the site level. RESULTS: 47,385 pediatric trauma patients were included. Overall trauma volume increased during the COVID cohort compared to the Historical (COVID 7068 patients versus Historical 5891 patients); however, some sites demonstrated a decrease in overall trauma of 25% while others had an increase of over 33%. Bicycle injuries increased at every site, with a range in percent change from 24% to 135% increase. Although the greatest net increase was due to blunt injuries, there was a greater relative increase in penetrating injuries at 7/9 sites, with a range in percent change from a 110% increase to a 69% decrease. CONCLUSIONS: There was considerable discrepancy in pediatric injury patterns at the individual site level, perhaps suggesting a variable impact of the specific sociopolitical climate and pandemic policies of each catchment area. Investigation of the unique response of the community during times of stress at pediatric trauma centers is warranted to be better prepared for future environmental stressors.

Disparities in the Management of Pediatric Breast Masses.

INTRODUCTION: Disparities in surgical management have been documented across a range of disease processes. The objective of this study was to investigate sociodemographic disparities in young females undergoing excision of a breast mass. METHODS: A retrospective study of females aged 10-21 y who underwent surgery for a breast lesion across eleven pediatric hospitals from 2011 to 2016 was performed. Differences in patient characteristics, workup, management, and pathology by race/ethnicity, insurance status, median neighborhood income, and urbanicity were evaluated with bivariate and multivariable regression analyses. RESULTS: A total of 454 females were included, with a median age of 16 y interquartile range (IQR: 3). 44% of patients were nonHispanic (NH) Black, 40% were NH White, and 7% were Hispanic. 50% of patients had private insurance, 39% had public insurance, and 9% had other/unknown insurance status. Median neighborhood income was $49,974, and 88% of patients resided in a metropolitan area. NH Whites have 4.5 times the odds of undergoing preoperative fine needle aspiration or core needle biopsy compared to NH Blacks (CI: 2.0, 10.0). No differences in time to surgery from the initial imaging study, size of the lesion, or pathology were observed on multivariable analysis. CONCLUSIONS: We found no significant differences by race/ethnicity, insurance status, household income, or urbanicity in the time to surgery after the initial imaging study. The only significant disparity noted on multivariable analysis was NH White patients were more likely to undergo preoperative biopsy than were NH Black patients; however, the utility of biopsy in pediatric breast masses is not well established.

Management of Pediatric Breast Masses: A Multi-institutional Retrospective Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: The objective of our study was to describe the workup, management, and outcomes of pediatric patients with breast masses undergoing operative intervention. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was conducted of girls 10-21 y of age who underwent surgery for a breast mass across 11 children's hospitals from 2011 to 2016. Demographic and clinical characteristics were summarized. RESULTS: Four hundred and fifty-three female patients with a median age of 16 y (IQR: 3) underwent surgery for a breast mass during the study period. The most common preoperative imaging was breast ultrasound (95%); 28% reported the Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System (BI-RADS) classification. Preoperative core biopsy was performed in 12%. All patients underwent lumpectomy, most commonly due to mass size (45%) or growth (29%). The median maximum dimension of a mass on preoperative ultrasound was 2.8 cm (IQR: 1.9). Most operations were performed by pediatric surgeons (65%) and breast surgeons (25%). The most frequent pathology was fibroadenoma (75%); 3% were phyllodes. BI-RADS scoring ≥4 on breast ultrasound had a sensitivity of 0% and a negative predictive value of 93% for identifying phyllodes tumors. CONCLUSIONS: Most pediatric breast masses are self-identified and benign. BI-RADS classification based on ultrasound was not consistently assigned and had little clinical utility for identifying phyllodes.

Factors Associated with Torsion in Pediatric Patients with Ovarian Masses.

BACKGROUND: Management of ovarian torsion has evolved toward ovarian preservation regardless of ovarian appearance during surgery. However, patients with torsion and an ovarian neoplasm undergo a disproportionately high rate of oophorectomy. Our objectives were to identify factors associated with ovarian torsion among females with an ovarian mass and to determine if torsion is associated with malignancy. METHODS: A retrospective review of females aged 2-21 y who underwent an operation for an ovarian cyst or neoplasm between 2010 and 2016 at 10 children's hospitals was performed. Multivariate logistic regression was used to assess factors associated with torsion. Imaging data were assessed for sensitivity, specificity, and predictive value in identifying ovarian torsion. RESULTS: Of 814 girls with an ovarian neoplasm, 180 (22%) had torsion. In risk-adjusted analyses, patients with a younger age, mass size >5 cm, abdominal pain, and vomiting had an increased likelihood of torsion (P < 0.01 for all). Patients with a mass >5 cm had two times the odds of torsion (odds ratio: 2.1; confidence interval: 1.2, 3.6). Imaging was not reliable at identifying torsion (sensitivity 34%, positive predictive value 49%) or excluding torsion (specificity 72%, negative predictive value 87%). The rates of malignancy were lower in those with an ovarian mass and torsion than those without torsion (10% versus 17%, P = 0.01). Among the 180 girls with torsion and a mass, 48% underwent oophorectomy of which 14% (n = 12) had a malignancy. CONCLUSIONS: In females with an ovarian neoplasm, torsion is not associated with an increased risk of malignancy and ovarian preservation should be considered.

Inter-rater Reliability of Sacral Ratio Measurements in Patients with Anorectal Malformations.

BACKGROUND: Anorectal malformations (ARMs) are a spectrum of congenital anomalies with varying prognosis for fecal continence. The sacral ratio (SR) is a measure of sacral development that has been proposed as a method to predict future fecal continence in children with ARM. The aim of this study was to quantify the inter-rater reliability (IRR) of SR calculations by radiologists at different institutions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: x-Rays in the anteroposterior (AP) and lateral planes were reviewed by a pediatric radiologist at each of six different institutions. Subsequently, images were reviewed by a single, central radiologist. The IRR was assessed by calculating Pearson correlation coefficients and intraclass correlation coefficients from linear mixed models with patient and rater-level random intercepts. RESULTS: Imaging from 263 patients was included in the study. The mean inter-rater absolute difference in the AP SR was 0.05 (interquartile range, 0.02-0.10), and in the lateral SR was 0.16 (interquartile range, 0.06-0.25). Overall, the IRR was excellent for AP SRs (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC], 81.5%; 95% confidence interval, 75.1%-86.0%) and poor for lateral SRs (ICC, 44.0%; 95% CI, 29.5%-59.2%). For both AP and lateral SRs, ICCs were similar when examined by the type of radiograph used for calculation, severity of the ARM, presence of sacral or spinal anomalies, and age at imaging. CONCLUSIONS: Across radiologists, the reliability of SR calculations was excellent for the AP plane but poor for the lateral plane. These results suggest that better standardization of lateral SR measurements is needed if they are going to be used to counsel families of children with ARM.

Association of Nonoperative Management Using Antibiotic Therapy vs Laparoscopic Appendectomy With Treatment Success and Disability Days in Children With Uncomplicated Appendicitis.

Importance: Nonoperative management with antibiotics alone has the potential to treat uncomplicated pediatric appendicitis with fewer disability days than surgery. Objective: To determine the success rate of nonoperative management and compare differences in treatment-related disability, satisfaction, health-related quality of life, and complications between nonoperative management and surgery in children with uncomplicated appendicitis. Design, Setting, and Participants: Multi-institutional nonrandomized controlled intervention study of 1068 children aged 7 through 17 years with uncomplicated appendicitis treated at 10 tertiary children's hospitals across 7 US states between May 2015 and October 2018 with 1-year follow-up through October 2019. Of the 1209 eligible patients approached, 1068 enrolled in the study. Interventions: Patient and family selection of nonoperative management with antibiotics alone (nonoperative group, n = 370) or urgent (≤12 hours of admission) laparoscopic appendectomy (surgery group, n = 698). Main Outcomes and Measures: The 2 primary outcomes assessed at 1 year were disability days, defined as the total number of days the child was not able to participate in all of his/her normal activities secondary to appendicitis-related care (expected difference, 5 days), and success rate of nonoperative management, defined as the proportion of patients initially managed nonoperatively who did not undergo appendectomy by 1 year (lowest acceptable success rate, ≥70%). Inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) was used to adjust for differences between treatment groups for all outcome assessments. Results: Among 1068 patients who were enrolled (median age, 12.4 years; 38% girls), 370 (35%) chose nonoperative management and 698 (65%) chose surgery. A total of 806 (75%) had complete follow-up: 284 (77%) in the nonoperative group; 522 (75%) in the surgery group. Patients in the nonoperative group were more often younger (median age, 12.3 years vs 12.5 years), Black (9.6% vs 4.9%) or other race (14.6% vs 8.7%), had caregivers with a bachelor's degree (29.8% vs 23.5%), and underwent diagnostic ultrasound (79.7% vs 74.5%). After IPTW, the success rate of nonoperative management at 1 year was 67.1% (96% CI, 61.5%-72.31%; P = .86). Nonoperative management was associated with significantly fewer patient disability days at 1 year than did surgery (adjusted mean, 6.6 vs 10.9 days; mean difference, -4.3 days (99% CI, -6.17 to -2.43; P < .001). Of 16 other prespecified secondary end points, 10 showed no significant difference. Conclusion and Relevance: Among children with uncomplicated appendicitis, an initial nonoperative management strategy with antibiotics alone had a success rate of 67.1% and, compared with urgent surgery, was associated with statistically significantly fewer disability days at 1 year. However, there was substantial loss to follow-up, the comparison with the prespecified threshold for an acceptable success rate of nonoperative management was not statistically significant, and the hypothesized difference in disability days was not met. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02271932.

Diagnostic performance of standardized ultrasound protocol for detecting perforation in pediatric appendicitis.

BACKGROUND: Recent clinical trials in adults and children have shown that uncomplicated acute appendicitis can be successfully treated with antibiotics alone. As treatment strategies for acute appendicitis diverge, accurate preoperative diagnosis of complicated appendicitis and appendiceal perforation has become increasingly important for clinical decision-making. OBJECTIVE: To examine diagnostic performance of ultrasound for detecting perforated appendicitis in a single institution using a standardized technique. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this retrospective single-center study we evaluated 113 ultrasounds from pediatric patients who underwent appendectomy between November 2014 and December 2015. All ultrasounds were performed using a standardized US protocol including still and cine images of all four abdominal quadrants, with more targeted evaluation of the right lower quadrant (RLQ) using graded compression technique. We compared US findings to intraoperative diagnosis of non-perforated or perforated acute appendicitis. RESULTS: The standardized image protocol generated a reproducible set of ultrasound images in all cases. The most common primary appendiceal finding on US in perforated appendicitis was appendix wall thickening >3 mm (54%, 171/314) and most common secondary finding was echogenic mesenteric fat (75%, 237/314). Thinning of the appendix wall and loculated fluid collection in the right lower quadrant were both highly specific (>90%) for perforation. CONCLUSION: The diagnostic performance of ultrasound using a standardized US technique was similar to that reported in prior studies for detecting perforated appendicitis. Despite low sensitivity, individual ultrasound findings and overall diagnostic impression of "evidence of appendix perforation" remain highly specific.

Can ultrasound reliably identify complicated appendicitis in children?

BACKGROUND: The ability of ultrasound to identify specific features relevant to nonoperative management of pediatric appendicitis, such as the presence of complicated appendicitis (CA) or an appendicolith, is unknown. Our objective was to determine the reliability of ultrasound in identifying these features. METHODS: We performed a retrospective study of children who underwent appendectomy after an ultrasound at four children's hospitals. Imaging, operative, and pathology reports were reviewed. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV) of ultrasound for identifying CA based on pathology and intraoperative findings and an appendicolith based on pathology were calculated. CA was defined as a perforation of the appendix. Equivocal ultrasounds were considered as not indicating CA. RESULTS: Of 1027 patients, 77.5% had simple appendicitis, 16.2% had CA, 5.4% had no evidence of appendicitis, and 15.6% had an appendicolith. Sensitivity and specificity of ultrasound for detecting CA based on pathology were 42.2% and 90.4%; the PPV and NPV were 45.8% and 89.0%, respectively. Sensitivity and specificity of ultrasound for detecting CA based on intraoperative findings were 37.3% and 92.7%; the PPV and NPV were 63.4% and 81.4%, respectively. Sensitivity and specificity of ultrasound for detecting an appendicolith based on pathology were 58.1% and 78.3%; the PPV and NPV were 33.1% and 91.0%, respectively. Results were similar when equivocal ultrasound and negative appendectomies were excluded. CONCLUSIONS: The high specificity and NPV suggest that ultrasound is a reliable test to exclude CA and an appendicolith in patients being considered for nonoperative management of simple appendicitis.

Synchronous Presentation of Renal Cell Carcinoma and Hodgkin Lymphoma in an Adolescent.

BACKGROUND: Coincidence of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) and hematologic malignancies has been reported in adults but not in children. OBSERVATION: We report a case of a 16-year-old girl in whom RCC was incidentally discovered on the computed tomography scan that was performed to stage her underlying Hodgkin lymphoma. Analysis of constitutional cytogenetics for common genetic aberrations that predispose to RCC did not reveal any mutations or genetic variations. However, cytogenetics on the RCC tumor demonstrated a rare reciprocal translocation between chromosomes 6 and 11, t(6;11)(p21;q12). After undergoing partial nephrectomy with regional lymphadenectomy and treatment with multiagent chemotherapy, patient is cancer-free, now 33 months from end of therapy. CONCLUSIONS: This case highlights the importance for histologic confirmation of a renal mass when concurrently discovered during the diagnostic evaluation of other malignancies.

Delaying Appendectomy Does Not Lead to Higher Rates of Surgical Site Infections: A Multi-institutional Analysis of Children With Appendicitis.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the association between time to appendectomy and the risk of surgical site infections (SSIs) in children with appendicitis across multiple NSQIP-Pediatrics institutions. BACKGROUND: Several recently published single institution retrospective studies have reported conflicting relationships between delaying appendectomy and the risk of increasing surgical site infections (SSI) in both children and adults. This study combines data from NSQIP-Pediatrics with institutional data to perform a multi-institutional analysis to examine the effects of delaying appendectomy on surgical site infections. METHODS: Data from NSQIP-Pediatrics between January 2010 and June 2012 for cases of appendectomy for appendicitis at 6 institutions (preoperative characteristics, time of operation, and postoperative occurrences) were combined with data from medical record review (length of symptoms; times of initial presentation, emergency department (ED) triage, and admission; and diagnosis as simple appendicitis (SA, acute) or complicated appendicitis (CA, gangrenous/ruptured)). Cochran-Armitage tests for trend and multivariable logistic regression models were used to evaluate associations between time to appendectomy and SSI. RESULTS: Of the 1338 patients included, 70% had SA and 30% had CA. Postoperative SSIs were more common in CA (5.7% vs 1.2%, P < 0.001). SSI rates did not differ significantly across hospitals (P = 0.17). Compared with patients who did not develop an SSI, patients who developed an SSI had similar times between ED triage and appendectomy (median (interquartile range) 11.5 hours (6.4-14.7) versus 9.7 hours (5.8-15.6, P = 0.36), and similar times from admission to appendectomy (5.5 hours (1.9-10.2) versus 4.3 hours (1.4-9.9), P = 0.36). Independent risk factors for SSI were CA (Odds Ratio (95% CI): 3.46 (1.48-8.10), P = 0.004), longer symptom duration (OR for a 10-hour increase: 1.05 (1.01-1.10), P = 0.02), and presence of sepsis/septic shock (2.70 (1.17-6.28), P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: A 16-hour delay from ED presentation or a 12-hour delay from hospital admission to appendectomy was not associated with an increased risk for SSI.

The use and timing of angioembolization in pediatric blunt liver and spleen injury.

BACKGROUND: Nonoperative management (NOM) is the standard of care for the management of blunt liver and spleen injuries (BLSI) in the stable pediatric patient. Angiography with embolization (AE) is used as an adjunctive therapy in the management of adult BLSI patients, but it is rarely used in the pediatric population. In this planned secondary analysis, we describe the current utilization patterns of AE in the management of pediatric BLSI. METHODS: After obtaining IRB approval at each center, cohort data was collected prospectively for children admitted with BLSI confirmed on CT at 10 Level I pediatric trauma centers (PTCs) throughout the United States from April 2013 to January 2016. All patients who underwent angiography with or without embolization for a BLSI were included in this analysis. Data collected included patient demographics, injury details, organ injured and grade of injury, CT finding specifics such as contrast blush, complications, failure of NOM, time to angiography and techniques for embolization. RESULTS: Data were collected for 1004 pediatric patients treated for BLSI over the study period, 30 (3.0%) of which underwent angiography with or without embolization for BLSI. Ten of the patients who underwent angiography for BLSI failed NOM. For patients with embolized splenic injuries, splenic salvage was 100%. Four of the nine patients undergoing embolization of the liver ultimately required an operative intervention, but only one patient required hepatorrhaphy and no patient required hepatectomy after AE. Few angiography studies were obtained early during hospitalization for BLSI, with only one patient undergoing angiography within 1 hour of arrival at the PTC, and 7 within 3 hours. CONCLUSION: Angioembolization is rarely used in the management of BLSI in pediatric trauma patients with blunt abdominal trauma and is generally used in a delayed fashion. However, when implemented, angioembolization is associated with 100% splenic salvage for splenic injuries. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic/Care Management; Level IV.

Diagnostic Performance of Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Pediatric Ovarian Neoplasms: A Multi-Institutional Review.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To assess the diagnostic performance of MRI to predict ovarian malignancy alone and compared with other diagnostic studies. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was conducted of patients aged 2-21 years who underwent ovarian mass resection between 2009 and 2021 at 11 pediatric hospitals. Sociodemographic information, clinical and imaging findings, tumor markers, and operative and pathology details were collected. Diagnostic performance for detecting malignancy was assessed by calculating sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV) for MRI with other diagnostic modalities. RESULTS: One thousand and fifty-three patients, with a median age of 14.6 years, underwent resection of an ovarian mass; 10% (110/1053) had malignant disease on pathology, and 13% (136/1053) underwent preoperative MRI. MRI sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV were 60%, 94%, 60%, and 94%. Ultrasound sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV were 31%, 99%, 73%, and 95%. Tumor marker sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV were 90%, 46%, 22%, and 96%. MRI and ultrasound concordance was 88%, with sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV of 33%, 99%, 75%, and 94%. MRI sensitivity in ultrasound-discordant cases was 100%. MRI and tumor marker concordance was 88% with sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV of 100%, 86%, 64%, and 100%. MRI specificity in tumor marker-discordant cases was 100%. CONCLUSION: Diagnostic modalities used to assess ovarian neoplasms in pediatric patients typically agree. In cases of disagreement, MRI is more sensitive for malignancy than ultrasound and more specific than tumor markers. Selective use of MRI with preoperative ultrasound and tumor markers may be beneficial when the risk of malignancy is uncertain. CONCISE ABSTRACT: This retrospective review of 1053 patients aged 2-21 years who underwent ovarian mass resection between 2009 and 2021 at 11 pediatric hospitals found that ultrasound, tumor markers, and MRI tend to agree on benign vs malignant, but in cases of disagreement, MRI is more sensitive for malignancy than ultrasound.

Distribution of acute appendicitis care in children: A statewide assessment of the surgeons and facilities providing surgical care.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric appendicitis is managed by general and pediatric surgeons at both children's hospitals and non-children's hospitals. A statewide assessment of surgeons and facilities providing appendicitis care was performed to identify factors associated with location of surgical care. METHODS: Children aged <18 years undergoing appendectomy for appendicitis in Wisconsin from 2018-2020 were identified through the International Classification of Diseases, 10th revision, and Current Procedural Terminology codes using Wisconsin Hospital Association data. Patient residence and hospital locations were used to determine travel distance, rurality, and neighborhood-level socioeconomic status. RESULTS: Among 3,604 children with appendicitis, 36.0% and 12.8% had an appendectomy at 2 major children's hospitals and 4 other children's hospitals, respectively, and 51.2% had an appendectomy at 99 non-children's hospitals. Pediatric surgeons performed 76.1% of appendectomies at children's hospitals and 2.9% at non-children's hospitals. Only 32.2% of patients received care at the hospital closest to their homes. Non-children's hospitals disproportionally cared for older, non-Hispanic White, and privately insured children, those with uncomplicated appendicitis, and those living in rural areas, in mid-socioeconomic status neighborhoods, and greater distances from children's hospitals (all P < .001). After multivariable adjustment, receipt of care at children's hospitals was associated with younger age, minority race, complicated appendicitis, shorter distance to children's hospitals, and urban residence. CONCLUSION: Over half of surgical care for pediatric appendicitis occurred at non-children's hospitals, especially among older children and those living in rural areas far from children's hospitals. Future work is necessary to determine which children benefit most from care at children's hospitals and which can safely receive care at non-children's hospitals to avoid unnecessary time and resource utilization associated with travel to children's hospitals.

Hemodilution in pediatric trauma: Defining the expected hemoglobin changes in patients with liver and/or spleen injury: An ATOMAC+ secondary analysis.

BACKGROUND: Many children with blunt liver and/or spleen injury (BLSI) never bleed intraperitoneally. Despite this, decreases in hemoglobin are common. This study examines initial and follow up measured hemoglobin values for children with BLSI with and without evidence of intra-abdominal bleeding. METHODS: Children ≤18 years of age with BLSI between April 2013 and January 2016 were identified from the prospective ATOMAC+ cohort. Initial and follow up hemoglobin levels were analyzed for 4 groups with BLSI: (1) Non bleeding; (2) Bleeding, non transfused (3) Bleeding, transfused, and (4) Bleeding resulting in non operative management (NOM) failure. RESULTS: Of 1007 patients enrolled, 767 were included in one or more of four study cohorts. Of 131 non bleeding patients, the mean decrease in hemoglobin was 0.83 g/dL (+/-1.35) after a median of 6.3 [5.1,7.0] hours, (p = 0.001). Follow-up hemoglobin levels in patients with and without successful NOM were not different. For patients with an initial hemoglobin >9.25 g/dL, the odds ratio (OR) for NOM failure was 14.2 times less, while the OR for transfusion was 11.4 times less (p = 0.001). CONCLUSION: Decreases in hemoglobin are expected after trauma, even if not bleeding. A hemoglobin decrease of 2.15 g/dL [0.8 + 1.35] would still be within one standard deviation of a non bleeding patient. An initial low hemoglobin correlates with failure of NOM as well as transfusion, thereby providing useful information. By contrast, subsequent hemoglobin levels do not appear to guide the need for transfusion, nor correlate with failure of NOM. These results support initial hemoglobin measurement but suggest a lack of utility for routine rechecking of hemoglobin. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II Prognostic Study.

Natural history and consequence of patent processus vaginalis: An interim analysis from a multi-institutional prospective observational study.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence and natural history of patent processus vaginalis (PPV) are unknown. An interim analysis was performed of a multi-institutional, prospective, observational study in neonates undergoing laparoscopic pyloromyotomy during which bilateral inguinal canals were evaluated. METHODS: Infants under 4 months undergoing laparoscopic pyloromyotomy were enrolled at 8 children's hospitals. The presence of a PPV was evaluated and measurements recorded. Patients with a PPV are undergoing annual phone follow-up to 18 years of age. Interim analysis was performed. RESULTS: In a cohort of 610 patient, 80 did not have a PPV examined, 4 had consent issues and were excluded, leaving 526 patients. Of these, 433 (82%) were male, median age 1.2 months (IQR 0.9, 1.6), median weight 3.89 kg (IQR 3.4, 4.46), and EGA 39 weeks (IQR 37, 40). There were 283 PPVs, 132 bilateral (47%), 116 right (41%), and 35 left (12%). Patients with a PPV were significantly younger (1.1 months (IQR 0.9, 1.5) vs 1.3 months (IQR 0.9, 1.7), p=0.02), weighed less (3.76kg (IQR 3.35, 4.26) vs 3.9kg (IQR 3.4, 4.5) p=0.03) and had a significantly lower EGA at birth (38 weeks (IQR 37, 40) vs 39 weeks (IQR 38, 40) p=0.003). Of 246 eligible infants, 208 (85%) responded to at least one annual follow-up. Two patients had an inguinal hernia repair for a symptomatic hernia, 49- and 51-days post pyloromyotomy. One had an orchiopexy and incidental inguinal hernia repair 120 days post pyloromyotomy; for a total of 3 (1.2%) hernia repairs. No additional hernias were identified in 116 patients with the PPV patients who have been followed for > 1 year. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of a PPV at the time of pyloromyotomy is common but the need for hernia repair is rare within the first year of life. Continued long-term longitudinal follow-up of this cohort is needed. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: II.

A Multi-institutional Study Evaluating Pediatric Burn Injuries During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, children were out of school due to Stay-at-Home Orders. The objective of this study was to investigate how the COVID-19 pandemic may have impacted the incidence of burn injuries in children. Eight Level I Pediatric Trauma Centers participated in a retrospective study evaluating children <18 years old with traumatic injuries defined by the National Trauma Data Bank. Patients with burn injuries were identified by ICD-10 codes. Historical controls from March to September 2019 ("Control" cohort) were compared to patients injured after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic from March to September 2020 ("COVID" cohort). A total of 12,549 pediatric trauma patients were included, of which 916 patients had burn injuries. Burn injuries increased after the start of the pandemic (COVID 522/6711 [7.8%] vs Control 394/5838 [6.7%], P = .03). There were no significant differences in age, race, insurance status, burn severity, injury severity score, intent or location of injury, and occurrence on a weekday or weekend between cohorts. There was an increase in flame burns (COVID 140/522 [26.8%] vs Control 75/394 [19.0%], P = .01) and a decrease in contact burns (COVID 118/522 [22.6%] vs Control 112/394 [28.4%], P = .05). More patients were transferred from an outside institution (COVID 315/522 patients [60.3%] vs Control 208/394 patients [52.8%], P = .02), and intensive care unit length of stay increased (COVID median 3.5 days [interquartile range 2.0-11.0] vs Control median 3.0 days [interquartile range 1.0-4.0], P = .05). Pediatric burn injuries increased after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic despite Stay-at-Home Orders intended to optimize health and increase public safety.

Pediatric injury trends and relationships with social vulnerability during the COVID-19 pandemic: A multi-institutional analysis.

BACKGROUND: The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on pediatric injury, particularly relative to a community's vulnerability, is unknown. The objective of this study was to describe the change in pediatric injury during the first 6 months of the COVID-19 pandemic compared with prior years, focusing on intentional injury relative to the social vulnerability index (SVI). METHODS: All patients younger than 18 years meeting inclusion criteria for the National Trauma Data Bank between January 1, 2016, and September 30, 2020, at nine Level I pediatric trauma centers were included. The COVID cohort (children injured in the first 6 months of the pandemic) was compared with an averaged historical cohort (corresponding dates, 2016-2019). Demographic and injury characteristics and hospital-based outcomes were compared. Multivariable logistic regression was used to estimate the adjusted odds of intentional injury associated with SVI, moderated by exposure to the pandemic. Interrupted time series analysis with autoregressive integrated moving average modeling was used to predict expected injury patterns. Volume trends and observed versus expected rates of injury were analyzed. RESULTS: There were 47,385 patients that met inclusion criteria, with 8,991 treated in 2020 and 38,394 treated in 2016 to 2019. The COVID cohort included 7,068 patients and the averaged historical cohort included 5,891 patients (SD, 472), indicating a 20% increase in pediatric injury ( p = 0.031). Penetrating injuries increased (722 [10.2%] COVID vs. 421 [8.0%] historical; p < 0.001), specifically firearm injuries (163 [2.3%] COVID vs. 105 [1.8%] historical; p = 0.043). Bicycle collisions (505 [26.3%] COVID vs. 261 [18.2%] historical; p < 0.001) and collisions on other land transportation (e.g., all-terrain vehicles) (525 [27.3%] COVID vs. 280 [19.5%] historical; p < 0.001) also increased. Overall, SVI was associated with intentional injury (odds ratio, 7.9; 95% confidence interval, 6.5-9.8), a relationship which increased during the pandemic. CONCLUSION: Pediatric injury increased during the pandemic across multiple sites and states. The relationship between increased vulnerability and intentional injury increased during the pandemic. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic and Epidemiological; Level III.

Relationship between the COVID-19 pandemic and structural inequalities within the pediatric trauma population.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted social, political, and economic life across the world, shining a light on the vulnerability of many communities. The objective of this study was to assess injury patterns before and after implementation of stay-at-home orders (SHOs) between White children and children of color and across varying levels of vulnerability based upon children's home residence. METHODS: A multi-institutional retrospective study was conducted evaluating patients < 18 years with traumatic injuries. A "Control" cohort from an averaged March-September 2016-2019 time period was compared to patients injured after SHO initiation-September 2020 ("COVID" cohort). Interactions between race/ethnicity or social vulnerability index (SVI), a marker of neighborhood vulnerability and socioeconomic status, and the COVID-19 timeframe with regard to the outcomes of interest were assessed using likelihood ratio Chi-square tests. Differences in injury intent, type, and mechanism were then stratified and explored by race/ethnicity and SVI separately. RESULTS: A total of 47,385 patients met study inclusion. Significant interactions existed between race/ethnicity and the COVID-19 SHO period for intent (p < 0.001) and mechanism of injury (p < 0.001). There was also significant interaction between SVI and the COVID-19 SHO period for mechanism of injury (p = 0.01). Children of color experienced a significant increase in intentional (COVID 16.4% vs. Control 13.7%, p = 0.03) and firearm (COVID 9.0% vs. Control 5.2%, p < 0.001) injuries, but no change was seen among White children. Children from the most vulnerable neighborhoods suffered an increase in firearm injuries (COVID 11.1% vs. Control 6.1%, p = 0.001) with children from the least vulnerable neighborhoods having no change. All-terrain vehicle (ATV) and bicycle crashes increased for children of color (COVID 2.0% vs. Control 1.1%, p = 0.04 for ATV; COVID 6.7% vs. Control 4.8%, p = 0.02 for bicycle) and White children (COVID 9.6% vs. Control 6.2%, p < 0.001 for ATV; COVID 8.8% vs. Control 5.8%, p < 0.001 for bicycle). CONCLUSIONS: In contrast to White children and children from neighborhoods of lower vulnerability, children of color and children living in higher vulnerability neighborhoods experienced an increase in intentional and firearm-related injuries during the COVID-19 pandemic. Understanding inequities in trauma burden during times of stress is critical to directing resources and targeting intervention strategies.

Use and Accuracy of Intraoperative Frozen Section Analysis for Ovarian Masses in Children and Adolescents.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Describe the current practice patterns and diagnostic accuracy of frozen section (FS) pathology for children and adolescents with ovarian masses DESIGN: Prospective cohort study from 2018 to 2021 SETTING: Eleven children's hospitals PARTICIPANTS: Females age 6-21 years undergoing surgical management of an ovarian mass INTERVENTIONS: Obtaining intraoperative FS pathology MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Diagnostic accuracy of FS pathology RESULTS: Of 691 patients who underwent surgical management of an ovarian mass, FS was performed in 27 (3.9%), of which 9 (33.3%) had a final malignant pathology. Among FS patients, 12 of 27 (44.4%) underwent ovary-sparing surgery, and 15 of 27 (55.5%) underwent oophorectomy with or without other procedures. FS results were disparate from final pathology in 7 of 27 (25.9%) cases. FS had a sensitivity of 44.4% and specificity of 94.4% for identifying malignancy, with a c-statistic of 0.69. Malignant diagnoses missed on FS included serous borderline tumor (n = 1), mucinous borderline tumor (n = 2), mucinous carcinoma (n = 1), and immature teratoma (n = 1). FS did not guide intervention in 10 of 27 (37.0%) patients: 9 with benign FS underwent oophorectomy, and 1 with malignant FS did not undergo oophorectomy. Of the 9 patients who underwent oophorectomy with benign FS, 5 (55.6%) had benign and 4 (44.4%) had malignant final pathology. CONCLUSIONS: FSs are infrequently utilized for pediatric and adolescent ovarian masses and could be inaccurate for predicting malignancy and guiding operative decision-making. We recommend continued assessment and refinement of guidance before any standardization of use of FS to assist with intraoperative decision-making for surgical resection and staging in children and adolescents with ovarian masses.