Structural basis for RNA surveillance by the human nuclear exosome targeting (NEXT) complex.

RNA quality control relies on co-factors and adaptors to identify and prepare substrates for degradation by ribonucleases such as the 3' to 5' ribonucleolytic RNA exosome. Here, we determined cryogenic electron microscopy structures of human nuclear exosome targeting (NEXT) complexes bound to RNA that reveal mechanistic insights to substrate recognition and early steps that precede RNA handover to the exosome. The structures illuminate ZCCHC8 as a scaffold, mediating homodimerization while embracing the MTR4 helicase and flexibly anchoring RBM7 to the helicase core. All three subunits collaborate to bind the RNA, with RBM7 and ZCCHC8 surveying sequences upstream of the 3' end to facilitate RNA capture by MTR4. ZCCHC8 obscures MTR4 surfaces important for RNA binding and extrusion as well as MPP6-dependent recruitment and docking onto the RNA exosome core, interactions that contribute to RNA surveillance by coordinating RNA capture, translocation, and extrusion from the helicase to the exosome for decay.

SnapShot: The RNA Exosome.

The RNA exosome is a 3' to 5' ribonuclease that plays a fundamental role in maturation, quality control, and turnover of nearly all types of RNA produced in eukaryotic cells. Here, we present an overview of the structure, composition, and functions of the RNA exosome, including various cytoplasmic and nuclear exosome co-factors and associated protein complexes. To view this SnapShot, open or download the PDF.

Helicase-Dependent RNA Decay Illuminated by a Cryo-EM Structure of a Human Nuclear RNA Exosome-MTR4 Complex.

The ribonucleolytic RNA exosome interacts with RNA helicases to degrade RNA. To understand how the 3' to 5' Mtr4 helicase engages RNA and the nuclear exosome, we reconstituted 14-subunit Mtr4-containing RNA exosomes from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, and human and show that they unwind structured substrates to promote degradation. We loaded a human exosome with an optimized DNA-RNA chimera that stalls MTR4 during unwinding and determined its structure to an overall resolution of 3.45 Å by cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM). The structure reveals an RNA-engaged helicase atop the non-catalytic core, with RNA captured within the central channel and DIS3 exoribonuclease active site. MPP6 tethers MTR4 to the exosome through contacts to the RecA domains of MTR4. EXOSC10 remains bound to the core, but its catalytic module and cofactor C1D are displaced by RNA-engaged MTR4. Competition for the exosome core may ensure that RNA is committed to degradation by DIS3 when engaged by MTR4.

Structural basis for transthiolation intermediates in the ubiquitin pathway.

Transthiolation (also known as transthioesterification) reactions are used in the biosynthesis of acetyl coenzyme A, fatty acids and polyketides, and for post-translational modification by ubiquitin (Ub) and ubiquitin-like (Ubl) proteins1-3. For the Ub pathway, E1 enzymes catalyse transthiolation from an E1~Ub thioester to an E2~Ub thioester. Transthiolation is also required for transfer of Ub from an E2~Ub thioester to HECT (homologous to E6AP C terminus) and RBR (ring-between-ring) E3 ligases to form E3~Ub thioesters4-6. How isoenergetic transfer of thioester bonds is driven forward by enzymes in the Ub pathway remains unclear. Here we isolate mimics of transient transthiolation intermediates for E1-Ub(T)-E2 and E2-Ub(T)-E3HECT complexes (where T denotes Ub in a thioester or Ub undergoing transthiolation) using a chemical strategy with native enzymes and near-native Ub to capture and visualize a continuum of structures determined by single-particle cryo-electron microscopy. These structures and accompanying biochemical experiments illuminate conformational changes in Ub, E1, E2 and E3 that are coordinated with the chemical reactions to facilitate directional transfer of Ub from each enzyme to the next.

YTHDC2 control of gametogenesis requires helicase activity but not m6A binding.

Mechanisms regulating meiotic progression in mammals are poorly understood. The N6-methyladenosine (m6A) reader and 3' → 5' RNA helicase YTHDC2 switches cells from mitotic to meiotic gene expression programs and is essential for meiotic entry, but how this critical cell fate change is accomplished is unknown. Here, we provide insight into its mechanism and implicate YTHDC2 in having a broad role in gene regulation during multiple meiotic stages. Unexpectedly, mutation of the m6A-binding pocket of YTHDC2 had no detectable effect on gametogenesis and mouse fertility, suggesting that YTHDC2 function is m6A-independent. Supporting this conclusion, CLIP data defined YTHDC2-binding sites on mRNA as U-rich and UG-rich motif-containing regions within 3' UTRs and coding sequences, distinct from the sites that contain m6A during spermatogenesis. Complete loss of YTHDC2 during meiotic entry did not substantially alter translation of its mRNA binding targets in whole-testis ribosome profiling assays but did modestly affect their steady-state levels. Mutation of the ATPase motif in the helicase domain of YTHDC2 did not affect meiotic entry, but it blocked meiotic prophase I progression, causing sterility. Our findings inform a model in which YTHDC2 binds transcripts independent of m6A status and regulates gene expression during multiple stages of meiosis by distinct mechanisms.

The RNA exosome targets the AID cytidine deaminase to both strands of transcribed duplex DNA substrates.

Activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) initiates immunoglobulin (Ig) heavy-chain (IgH) class switch recombination (CSR) and Ig variable region somatic hypermutation (SHM) in B lymphocytes by deaminating cytidines on template and nontemplate strands of transcribed DNA substrates. However, the mechanism of AID access to the template DNA strand, particularly when hybridized to a nascent RNA transcript, has been an enigma. We now implicate the RNA exosome, a cellular RNA-processing/degradation complex, in targeting AID to both DNA strands. In B lineage cells activated for CSR, the RNA exosome associates with AID, accumulates on IgH switch regions in an AID-dependent fashion, and is required for optimal CSR. Moreover, both the cellular RNA exosome complex and a recombinant RNA exosome core complex impart robust AID- and transcription-dependent DNA deamination of both strands of transcribed SHM substrates in vitro. Our findings reveal a role for noncoding RNA surveillance machinery in generating antibody diversity.

SUMO enhances unfolding of SUMO-polyubiquitin-modified substrates by the Ufd1/Npl4/Cdc48 complex.

The Ufd1/Npl4/Cdc48 complex is a universal protein segregase that plays key roles in eukaryotic cellular processes. Its functions orchestrating the clearance or removal of polyubiquitylated targets are established; however, prior studies suggest that the complex also targets substrates modified by the ubiquitin-like protein SUMO. Here, we show that interactions between Ufd1 and SUMO enhance unfolding of substrates modified by SUMO-polyubiquitin hybrid chains by the budding yeast Ufd1/Npl4/Cdc48 complex compared to substrates modified by polyubiquitin chains, a difference that is accentuated when the complex has a choice between these substrates. Incubating Ufd1/Npl4/Cdc48 with a substrate modified by a SUMO-polyubiquitin hybrid chain produced a series of single-particle cryo-EM structures that reveal features of interactions between Ufd1/Npl4/Cdc48 and ubiquitin prior to and during unfolding of ubiquitin. These results are consistent with cellular functions for SUMO and ubiquitin modifications and support a physical model wherein Ufd1/Npl4/Cdc48, SUMO, and ubiquitin conjugation pathways converge to promote clearance of proteins modified with SUMO and polyubiquitin.

DNA asymmetry promotes SUMO modification of the single-stranded DNA-binding protein RPA.

Repair of DNA double-stranded breaks by homologous recombination (HR) is dependent on DNA end resection and on post-translational modification of repair factors. In budding yeast, single-stranded DNA is coated by replication protein A (RPA) following DNA end resection, and DNA-RPA complexes are then SUMO-modified by the E3 ligase Siz2 to promote repair. Here, we show using enzymatic assays that DNA duplexes containing 3' single-stranded DNA overhangs increase the rate of RPA SUMO modification by Siz2. The SAP domain of Siz2 binds DNA duplexes and makes a key contribution to this process as highlighted by models and a crystal structure of Siz2 and by assays performed using protein mutants. Enzymatic assays performed using DNA that can accommodate multiple RPA proteins suggest a model in which the SUMO-RPA signal is amplified by successive rounds of Siz2-dependent SUMO modification of RPA and dissociation of SUMO-RPA at the junction between single- and double-stranded DNA. Our results provide insights on how DNA architecture scaffolds a substrate and E3 ligase to promote SUMO modification in the context of DNA repair.

Targeting RNA for processing or destruction by the eukaryotic RNA exosome and its cofactors.

The eukaryotic RNA exosome is an essential and conserved protein complex that can degrade or process RNA substrates in the 3'-to-5' direction. Since its discovery nearly two decades ago, studies have focused on determining how the exosome, along with associated cofactors, achieves the demanding task of targeting particular RNAs for degradation and/or processing in both the nucleus and cytoplasm. In this review, we highlight recent advances that have illuminated roles for the RNA exosome and its cofactors in specific biological pathways, alongside studies that attempted to dissect these activities through structural and biochemical characterization of nuclear and cytoplasmic RNA exosome complexes.

Nuclear RNA Exosome at 3.1 Å Reveals Substrate Specificities, RNA Paths, and Allosteric Inhibition of Rrp44/Dis3.

The eukaryotic RNA exosome is an essential and conserved 3'-to-5' exoribonuclease complex that degrades or processes nearly every class of cellular RNA. The nuclear RNA exosome includes a 9-subunit non-catalytic core that binds Rrp44 (Dis3) and Rrp6 subunits to modulate their processive and distributive 3'-to-5' exoribonuclease activities, respectively. Here we utilize an engineered RNA with two 3' ends to obtain a crystal structure of an 11-subunit nuclear exosome bound to RNA at 3.1 Å. The structure reveals an extended RNA path to Rrp6 that penetrates into the non-catalytic core; contacts between the non-catalytic core and Rrp44, which inhibit exoribonuclease activity; and features of the Rrp44 exoribonuclease site that support its ability to degrade 3' phosphate RNA substrates. Using reconstituted exosome complexes, we show that 3' phosphate RNA is not a substrate for Rrp6 but is readily degraded by Rrp44 in the nuclear exosome.

Recognition of Lys48-Linked Di-ubiquitin and Deubiquitinating Activities of the SARS Coronavirus Papain-like Protease.

Deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) recognize and cleave linkage-specific polyubiquitin (polyUb) chains, but mechanisms underlying specificity remain elusive in many cases. The severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus papain-like protease (PLpro) is a DUB that cleaves ISG15, a two-domain Ub-like protein, and Lys48-linked polyUb chains, releasing diUb(Lys48) products. To elucidate this specificity, we report the 2.85 Å crystal structure of SARS PLpro bound to a diUb(Lys48) activity-based probe. SARS PLpro binds diUb(Lys48) in an extended conformation via two contact sites, S1 and S2, which are proximal and distal to the active site, respectively. We show that specificity for polyUb(Lys48) chains is predicated on contacts in the S2 site and enhanced by an S1-S1' preference for a Lys48 linkage across the active site. In contrast, ISG15 specificity is dominated by contacts in the S1 site. Determinants revealed for polyUb(Lys48) specificity should prove useful in understanding PLpro deubiquitinating activities in coronavirus infections.

Substrate discrimination and quality control require each catalytic activity of TRAMP and the nuclear RNA exosome.

Quality control requires discrimination between functional and aberrant species to selectively target aberrant substrates for destruction. Nuclear RNA quality control in Saccharomyces cerevisiae includes the TRAMP complex that marks RNA for decay via polyadenylation followed by helicase-dependent 3' to 5' degradation by the RNA exosome. Using reconstitution biochemistry, we show that polyadenylation and helicase activities of TRAMP cooperate with processive and distributive exoribonuclease activities of the nuclear RNA exosome to protect stable RNA from degradation while selectively targeting and degrading less stable RNA. Substrate discrimination is lost when the distributive exoribonuclease activity of Rrp6 is inactivated, leading to degradation of stable and unstable RNA species. These data support a proofreading mechanism in which deadenylation by Rrp6 competes with Mtr4-dependent degradation to protect stable RNA while selectively targeting and degrading unstable RNA.

Substrate selectivity by the exonuclease Rrp6p.

The exoribonuclease Rrp6p is critical for RNA decay in the nucleus. While Rrp6p acts on a large range of diverse substrates, it does not indiscriminately degrade all RNAs. How Rrp6p accomplishes this task is not understood. Here, we measure Rrp6p-RNA binding and degradation kinetics in vitro at single-nucleotide resolution and find an intrinsic substrate selectivity that enables Rrp6p to discriminate against specific RNAs. RNA length and the four 3'-terminal nucleotides contribute most to substrate selectivity and collectively enable Rrp6p to discriminate between different RNAs by several orders of magnitude. The most pronounced discrimination is seen against RNAs ending with CCA-3'. These RNAs correspond to 3' termini of uncharged tRNAs, which are not targeted by Rrp6p in cells. The data show that in contrast to many other proteins that use substrate selectivity to preferentially interact with specific RNAs, Rrp6p utilizes its selectivity to discriminate against specific RNAs. This ability allows Rrp6p to target diverse substrates while avoiding a subset of RNAs.

The SUMO pathway: emerging mechanisms that shape specificity, conjugation and recognition.

Proteins of the small ubiquitin-related modifier (SUMO) family are conjugated to proteins to regulate such cellular processes as nuclear transport, transcription, chromosome segregation and DNA repair. Recently, numerous insights into regulatory mechanisms of the SUMO modification pathway have emerged. Although SUMO-conjugating enzymes can discriminate between SUMO targets, many substrates possess characteristics that facilitate their modification. Other post-translational modifications also regulate SUMO conjugation, suggesting that SUMO signalling is integrated with other signal transduction pathways. A better understanding of SUMO regulatory mechanisms will lead to improved approaches for analysing the function of SUMO and substrate conjugation in distinct cellular pathways.

Capturing a substrate in an activated RING E3/E2-SUMO complex.

Post-translational protein modification by ubiquitin (Ub) and ubiquitin-like (Ubl) proteins such as small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) regulates processes including protein homeostasis, the DNA damage response, and the cell cycle. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) is modified by Ub or poly-Ub at lysine (Lys)164 after DNA damage to recruit repair factors. Yeast PCNA is modified by SUMO on Lys164 and Lys127 during S-phase to recruit the anti-recombinogenic helicase Srs2. Lys164 modification requires specialized E2/E3 enzyme pairs for SUMO or Ub conjugation. For SUMO, Lys164 modification is strictly dependent on the E3 ligase Siz1, suggesting the E3 alters E2 specificity to promote Lys164 modification. The structural basis for substrate interactions in activated E3/E2­Ub/Ubl complexes remains unclear. Here we report an engineered E2 protein and cross-linking strategies that trap an E3/E2­Ubl/substrate complex for structure determination, illustrating how an E3 can bypass E2 specificity to force-feed a substrate lysine into the E2 active site.

Structural basis for adenylation and thioester bond formation in the ubiquitin E1.

The ubiquitin (Ub) and Ub-like (Ubl) protein-conjugation cascade is initiated by E1 enzymes that catalyze Ub/Ubl activation through C-terminal adenylation, thioester bond formation with an E1 catalytic cysteine, and thioester bond transfer to Ub/Ubl E2 conjugating enzymes. Each of these reactions is accompanied by conformational changes of the E1 domain that contains the catalytic cysteine (Cys domain). Open conformations of the Cys domain are associated with adenylation and thioester transfer to E2s, while a closed conformation is associated with pyrophosphate release and thioester bond formation. Several structures are available for Ub E1s, but none has been reported in the open state before pyrophosphate release or in the closed state. Here, we describe the structures of Schizosaccharomyces pombe Ub E1 in these two states, captured using semisynthetic Ub probes. In the first, with a Ub-adenylate mimetic (Ub-AMSN) bound, the E1 is in an open conformation before release of pyrophosphate. In the second, with a Ub-vinylsulfonamide (Ub-AVSN) bound covalently to the catalytic cysteine, the E1 is in a closed conformation required for thioester bond formation. These structures provide further insight into Ub E1 adenylation and thioester bond formation. Conformational changes that accompany Cys-domain rotation are conserved for SUMO and Ub E1s, but changes in Ub E1 involve additional surfaces as mutational and biochemical analysis of residues within these surfaces alter Ub E1 activities.

How an mRNA capping enzyme reads distinct RNA polymerase II and Spt5 CTD phosphorylation codes.

Interactions between RNA guanylyltransferase (GTase) and the C-terminal domain (CTD) repeats of RNA polymerase II (Pol2) and elongation factor Spt5 are thought to orchestrate cotranscriptional capping of nascent mRNAs. The crystal structure of a fission yeast GTase•Pol2 CTD complex reveals a unique docking site on the nucleotidyl transferase domain for an 8-amino-acid Pol2 CTD segment, S5PPSYSPTS5P, bracketed by two Ser5-PO4 marks. Analysis of GTase mutations that disrupt the Pol2 CTD interface shows that at least one of the two Ser5-PO4-binding sites is required for cell viability and that each site is important for cell growth at 37°C. Fission yeast GTase binds the Spt5 CTD at a separate docking site in the OB-fold domain that captures the Trp4 residue of the Spt5 nonapeptide repeat T(1)PAW(4)NSGSK. A disruptive mutation in the Spt5 CTD-binding site of GTase is synthetically lethal with mutations in the Pol2 CTD-binding site, signifying that the Spt5 and Pol2 CTDs cooperate to recruit capping enzyme in vivo. CTD phosphorylation has opposite effects on the interaction of GTase with Pol2 (Ser5-PO4 is required for binding) versus Spt5 (Thr1-PO4 inhibits binding). We propose that the state of Thr1 phosphorylation comprises a binary "Spt5 CTD code" that is read by capping enzyme independent of and parallel to its response to the state of the Pol2 CTD.

Structure of a ubiquitin E1-E2 complex: insights to E1-E2 thioester transfer.

Ubiquitin (Ub) conjugation is initiated by an E1 enzyme that catalyzes carboxy-terminal Ub adenylation, thioester bond formation to a catalytic cysteine in the E1 Cys domain, and thioester transfer to a catalytic cysteine in E2 conjugating enzymes. How the E1 and E2 active sites come together during thioester transfer and how Ub E1 interacts with diverse Ub E2s remains unclear. Here we present a crystal structure of a Ub E1-E2(Ubc4)/Ub/ATP·Mg complex that was stabilized by induction of a disulfide bond between the E1 and E2 active sites. The structure reveals combinatorial recognition of the E2 by the E1 ubiquitin-fold domain (UFD) and Cys domain and mutational analysis, coupled with thioester transfer assays with E1, Ubc4, and other Ub E2s, show that both interfaces are important for thioester transfer. Comparison to a Ub E1/Ub/ATP·Mg structure reveals conformational changes in the E1 that bring the E1 and E2 active sites together.

Structural basis for MTR4-ZCCHC8 interactions that stimulate the MTR4 helicase in the nuclear exosome-targeting complex.

The nuclear exosome-targeting (NEXT) complex functions as an RNA exosome cofactor and is involved in surveillance and turnover of aberrant transcripts and noncoding RNAs. NEXT is a ternary complex composed of the RNA-binding protein RBM7, the scaffold zinc-knuckle protein ZCCHC8, and the helicase MTR4. While RNA interactions with RBM7 are known, it remains unclear how NEXT subunits collaborate to recognize and prepare substrates for degradation. Here, we show that MTR4 helicase activity is enhanced when associated with RBM7 and ZCCHC8. While uridine-rich substrates interact with RBM7 and are preferred, optimal activity is observed when substrates include a polyadenylated 3' end. We identify a bipartite interaction of ZCCHC8 with MTR4 and uncover a role for the conserved C-terminal domain of ZCCHC8 in stimulating MTR4 helicase and ATPase activities. A crystal structure reveals that the ZCCHC8 C-terminal domain binds the helicase core in a manner that is distinct from that observed for Saccharomyces cerevisiae exosome cofactors Trf4p and Air2p. Our results are consistent with a model whereby effective targeting of substrates by NEXT entails recognition of elements within the substrate and activation of MTR4 helicase activity.

Ubiquitin-like Protein Conjugation: Structures, Chemistry, and Mechanism.

Ubiquitin-like proteins (Ubl's) are conjugated to target proteins or lipids to regulate their activity, stability, subcellular localization, or macromolecular interactions. Similar to ubiquitin, conjugation is achieved through a cascade of activities that are catalyzed by E1 activating enzymes, E2 conjugating enzymes, and E3 ligases. In this review, we will summarize structural and mechanistic details of enzymes and protein cofactors that participate in Ubl conjugation cascades. Precisely, we will focus on conjugation machinery in the SUMO, NEDD8, ATG8, ATG12, URM1, UFM1, FAT10, and ISG15 pathways while referring to the ubiquitin pathway to highlight common or contrasting themes. We will also review various strategies used to trap intermediates during Ubl activation and conjugation.