Expanding Wetland Mitigation: Can Rice Fields Remediate Pesticides in Agricultural Runoff?

Pesticides are responsible for nearly 1900 water quality impairments in the United States. Impacts of pesticide runoff on aquatic ecosystems can be mitigated by implementing management practices such as constructed wetlands, grass buffers, and vegetated ditches. A new practice currently being examined is the use of rice ( L.) fields for phytoremediation of pesticide-contaminated water. Rice is cultivated on every continent except Antarctica and is the staple food crop of 20% of the world's population. Four flooded 244-m fields (two planted with rice, two left bare) were amended with a mixture of atrazine (CHClN), diazinon (CHNOPS), and permethrin (CHClO) during a one-time simulated storm event, and pesticide concentrations and loads were monitored in water, sediment, and plant samples. The experiment was repeated the following year. Significant differences were noted for mitigation of atrazine and diazinon loads in rice versus bare systems. Overall, atrazine loads in the water of rice systems decreased 85 ± 8% from inflow to outflow, while atrazine loads in the water of bare systems decreased 58 ± 7%. Similar patterns were seen for diazinon (86 ± 4% versus 62 ± 7%), cis-permethrin (94 ± 2% versus 64 ± 12%), and trans-permethrin (97 ± 2% versus 67 ± 14%). All three pesticides were found repeatedly sorbed to plant material in the inflow and outflow areas during the first year, while the second year resulted in much less plant-pesticide contribution to overall mitigation. Further investigation is needed to compare rice's mitigation capacity of different pesticide classes, as well as potential transfer of pesticides to edible seeds.

Lake Nutrient Responses to Integrated Conservation Practices in an Agricultural Watershed.

Watershed-scale management efforts to reduce nutrient loads and improve the conservation of lakes in agricultural watersheds require effective integration of a variety of agricultural conservation best management practices (BMPs). This paper documents watershed-scale assessments of the influence of multiple integrated BMPs on oxbow lake nutrient concentrations in a 625-ha watershed of intensive row-crop agricultural activity during a 14-yr monitoring period (1996-2009). A suite of BMPs within fields and at field edges throughout the watershed and enrollment of 87 ha into the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) were implemented from 1995 to 2006. Total phosphorus (TP), soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP), ammonium, and nitrate were measured approximately biweekly from 1996 to 2009, and total nitrogen (TN) was measured from 2001 to 2009. Decreases in several lake nutrient concentrations occurred after BMP implementation. Reductions in TP lake concentrations were associated with vegetative buffers and rainfall. No consistent patterns of changes in TN or SRP lake concentrations were observed. Reductions in ammonium lake concentrations were associated with conservation tillage and CRP. Reductions in nitrate lake concentrations were associated with vegetative buffers. Watershed simulations conducted with the AnnAGNPS (Annualized Agricultural Non-Point Source) model with and without BMPs also show a clear reduction in TN and TP loads to the lake after the implementation of BMPs. These results provide direct evidence of how watershed-wide BMPs assist in reducing nutrient loading in aquatic ecosystems and promote a more viable and sustainable lake ecosystem.

Mitigation of atrazine, S-metolachlor, and diazinon using common emergent aquatic vegetation.

By the year 2050, the population of the United States is expected to reach over 418 million, while the global population will reach 9.6 billion. To provide safe food and fiber, agriculture must balance pesticide usage against impacts on natural resources. Challenges arise when storms cause runoff to be transported to aquatic receiving systems. Vegetated systems such as drainage ditches and constructed wetlands have been proposed as management practices to alleviate pesticide runoff. Twelve experimental mesocosms (1.3×0.71×0.61m) were filled with sediment and planted with a monoculture of one of three wetland plant species (Typha latifolia, Leersia oryzoides, and Sparganium americanum). Three mesocosms remained unvegetated to serve as controls. All mesocosms were amended with 9.2±0.8µg/L, 12±0.4µg/L, and 3.1±0.2µg/L of atrazine, metolachlor, and diazinon, respectively, over a 4hr hydraulic retention time to simulate storm runoff. Following the 4hr amendment, non-amended water was flushed through mesocosms for an additional 4hr. Outflow water samples were taken hourly from pre-amendment through 8hr, and again at 12, 24, 48, 72, and 168hr post-amendment. L. oryzoides and T. latifolia had mean atrazine, metolachlor, and diazinon retentions from 51%-55% for the first 4hr of the experiment. Aside from S. americanum and atrazine (25% retention), unvegetated controls had the lowest pesticide retention (17%-28%) of all compared mesocosms. While native aquatic vegetation shows promise for mitigation of pesticide runoff, further studies increasing the hydraulic retention time for improved efficiency should be examined.

Spatial characterization of riparian buffer effects on sediment loads from watershed systems.

Understanding all watershed systems and their interactions is a complex, but critical, undertaking when developing practices designed to reduce topsoil loss and chemical/nutrient transport from agricultural fields. The presence of riparian buffer vegetation in agricultural landscapes can modify the characteristics of overland flow, promoting sediment deposition and nutrient filtering. Watershed simulation tools, such as the USDA-Annualized Agricultural Non-Point Source (AnnAGNPS) pollution model, typically require detailed information for each riparian buffer zone throughout the watershed describing the location, width, vegetation type, topography, and possible presence of concentrated flow paths through the riparian buffer zone. Research was conducted to develop GIS-based technology designed to spatially characterize riparian buffers and to estimate buffer efficiency in reducing sediment loads in a semiautomated fashion at watershed scale. The methodology combines modeling technology at different scales, at individual concentrated flow paths passing through the riparian zone, and at watershed scales. At the concentrated flow path scale, vegetative filter strip models are applied to estimate the sediment-trapping efficiency for each individual flow path, which are aggregated based on the watershed subdivision and used in the determination of the overall impact of the riparian vegetation at the watershed scale. This GIS-based technology is combined with AnnAGNPS to demonstrate the effect of riparian vegetation on sediment loadings from sheet and rill and ephemeral gully sources. The effects of variability in basic input parameters used to characterize riparian buffers, onto generated outputs at field scale (sediment trapping efficiency) and at watershed scale (sediment loadings from different sources) were evaluated and quantified. The AnnAGNPS riparian buffer component represents an important step in understanding and accounting for the effect of riparian vegetation, existing and/or managed, in reducing sediment loads at the watershed scale.

The LTAR cropland common experiment in the Lower Mississippi River Basin.

The Lower Mississippi River Basin-Long-Term Agroecosystem Research Site (LMRB-LTAR) encompasses six states from Missouri to the Gulf of Mexico and is coordinated by the USDA-ARS National Sedimentation Laboratory, Oxford, MS. The overarching goal of LTAR is to assess regionally diverse and geographically scalable farming practices for enhanced sustainability of agroecosystem goods and services under changing environment and resource-use conditions. The LMRB-LTAR overall goal is to assess sustainable row crop agricultural production systems that integrate regional environmental and socioeconomic needs. Primary row crops in the region include soybeans, corn, cotton, rice, and sugarcane with crop rotations influenced by commodity crop price and other factors. The field-scale common experiment (CE) includes four row crop farms (26-101 ha) established in 2021 and 2023. Three fields are managed with alternative practices, including reduced tillage, cover crops, and automated prescription irrigation, and three fields are managed with prevailing farming practices, consisting of conventional tillage, no cover crop, and nonprescription irrigation. Treatment effects on crop productivity, soil quality, water use efficiency, water quality, and carbon storage are assessed. Research from the LMRB CE will deliver outcomes linked to overarching LTAR network goals, including innovative agricultural systems, strengthened partnerships, data management technologies, and precision environmental tools.

Responses of phytoplankton and Hyalella azteca to agrichemical mixtures in a constructed wetland mesocosm.

We assessed the capability of a constructed wetland to mitigate toxicity of a variety of possible mixtures, such as nutrients only (NO) (nitrogen [N], phosphorus [P]), pesticides only (PO) (atrazine, S-metolachlor, permethrin), and nutrients + pesticides on phytoplankton chlorophyll-a, on 48-h aqueous Hyalella azteca survival and 10-day sediment H. azteca survival and growth. Water and sediment were collected at 10-, 20-, and 40-m distances from inflow and analyzed for nutrients, pesticides, chlorophyll-a, and H. azteca laboratory bioassays. Phytoplankton chlorophyll-a increased 4- to 10 -fold at 7 days after NO treatment. However, responses of chlorophyll-a to PO and nutrients + pesticides were more complex with associated decreases at only 20 m for pesticides only and 10 and 40 m for nutrients + pesticides treatments. H. azteca aqueous survival decreased within the first 48 h of dosing at 10- and 20-m distances during PO and nutrients + pesticides treatments in association with permethrin concentrations. H. azteca sediment survival was unaffected, whereas 10-day growth decreased within 1 day of dosing at all sites during nutrients + pesticides treatment. Constructed wetlands were shown to be an effective agricultural best-management tool for trapping pollutants and mitigating ecological impacts of run-off in agricultural watersheds.

Phosphorus losses from agricultural watersheds in the Mississippi Delta.

Phosphorus (P) loss from agricultural fields is of environmental concern because of its potential impact on water quality in streams and lakes. The Mississippi Delta has long been known for its fish productivity and recreational value, but high levels of P in fresh water can lead to algal blooms that have many detrimental effects on natural ecosystems. Algal blooms interfere with recreational and aesthetic water use. However, few studies have evaluated P losses from agricultural watersheds in the Mississippi Delta. To better understand the processes influencing P loss, rainfall, surface runoff, sediment, ortho-P (orthophosphate, PO(4)-P), and total P (TP) were measured (water years 1996-2000) for two subwatersheds (UL1 and UL2) of the Deep Hollow Lake Watershed and one subwatershed of the Beasley Lake Watershed (BL3) primarily in cotton production in the Mississippi Delta. Ortho-P concentrations ranged from 0.01 to 1.0 mg/L with a mean of 0.17 mg/L at UL1 (17.0 ha), 0.36 mg/L at UL2 (11.2 ha) and 0.12 mg/L at BL3 (7.2 ha). The TP concentrations ranged from 0.14 to 7.9 mg/L with a mean of 0.96 mg/L at UL1, 1.1 mg/L at UL2 and 1.29 mg/L at BL3. Among the three sites, UL1 and UL2 received P application in October 1998, and BL3 received P applications in the spring of 1998 and 1999. At UL1, ortho-P concentrations were 0.36, 0.25 and 0.16 for the first, second and third rainfall events after P application, respectively; At UL2, ortho-P concentrations were 1.0, 0.66 and 0.65 for the first, second and third rainfall events after P application, respectively; and at BL3, ortho-P concentrations were 0.11, 0.22 and 0.09 for the first, second and third rainfall events after P application, respectively. P fertilizer application did influence P losses, but high P concentrations observed in surface runoff were not always a direct result of P fertilizer application or high rainfall. Application of P in the fall (UL1 and UL2) resulted in more ortho-P losses, likely because high rainfall often occurred in the winter months soon after application. The mean ortho-P concentrations were higher at UL1 and UL2 than those at BL3, although BL3 received more P application during the monitoring period, because P was applied in spring at BL3. However, tillage associated with planting and incorporating applied P in the spring (BL3) may have resulted in more TP loss in sediment, thus the mean TP concentration was the highest at BL3. Ortho-P loss was correlated with surface runoff; and TP loss was correlated with sediment loss. These results indicate that applying P fertilizer in the spring may be recommended to reduce potential ortho-P loss during the fallow winter season; in addition, conservation practices may reduce potential TP loss associated with soil loss.

Role of vegetation in a constructed wetland on nutrient-pesticide mixture toxicity to Hyalella azteca.

The toxicity of a nutrient-pesticide mixture in nonvegetated and vegetated sections of a constructed wetland (882 m² each) was assessed using Hyalella azteca 48-h aqueous whole-effluent toxicity bioassays. Both sections were amended with a mixture of sodium nitrate, triple superphosphate, diazinon, and permethrin simulating storm-event agricultural runoff. Aqueous samples were collected at inflow, middle, and outflow points within each section 5 h, 24 h, 72 h, 7 days, 14 days, and 21 days postamendment. Nutrients and pesticides were detected throughout both wetland sections with concentrations longitudinally decreasing more in vegetated than nonvegetated section within 24 h. Survival effluent dilution point estimates-NOECs, LOECs, and LC50s-indicated greatest differences in toxicity between nonvegetated and vegetated sections at 5 h. Associations of nutrient and pesticide concentrations with NOECs indicated that earlier toxicity (5-72 h) was from permethrin and diazinon, whereas later toxicity (7-21 days) was primarily from diazinon. Nutrient-pesticide mixture concentration-response assessment using toxic unit models indicated that H. azteca toxicity was due primarily to the pesticides diazinon and permethrin. Results show that the effects of vegetation versus no vegetation on nutrient-pesticide mixture toxicity are not evident after 5 h and a 21-day retention time is necessary to improve H. azteca survival to ≥90% in constructed wetlands of this size.

Estimating sorption of monovalent acidic herbicides at different pH levels using a single sorption coefficient.

BACKGROUND: Monovalent acidic pesticide sorption can be determined for any soil pH if the dissociation constant of the compound is known, and sorption coefficients are available for at least two different pH values, measured in a wide enough range to enable estimating both neutral and anionic form coefficients. Sorption estimates have also been made from a single sorption coefficient available, assuming a non-compound specific value of the anionic form sorption coefficient or considering a generic ratio between sorption coefficients of the two forms. A compound-specific procedure for adjustment of parameters of the equation for estimating sorption of monovalent acidic herbicides at different pH levels, from a single sorption coefficient, is proposed and evaluated. RESULTS: The quality of fits was good for sorption of all three herbicides studied, especially for 2,4-D and flumetsulam at pH above 5, even for diverse soils and experimental procedures and conditions. The best fits resulted in the following ratios of theoretical maximum organic-carbon sorption coefficients for neutral and anionic forms (Kocn':Koca'): 440:1 for 2,4-D; 132:1 for flumetsulam; and 55:1 for sulfentrazone. CONCLUSION: The ratios of theoretical maximum sorption coefficients for neutral and anionic forms (Kocn':Koca') are compound-specific, thus this procedure should also be applied to pH-sorption datasets for other acidic pesticides to provide the respective ratio between the theoretical maximum sorption coefficients, instead of using generic assigned values. More calibration research is recommended and validation of this approach is required to demonstrate applicability of the method. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Interactions of tillage and cover crop on water, sediment, and pre-emergence herbicide loss in glyphosate-resistant cotton: implications for the control of glyphosate-resistant weed biotypes.

The need to control glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine]-resistant weed biotypes with tillage and preemergence herbicides in glyphosate-resistant crops (GRCs) is causing a reduction in no-tillage hectarage thereby threatening the advances made in water quality over the past decade. Consequently, if environmental gains afforded by GRCs are to be maintained, then an in-field best management practice (BMP) compatible with tillage is required for hectarage infested with glyphosate-resistant weed biotypes. Thus, 1 d after a preemergent application of fluometuron [N,N-dimethyl-N'-(3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)urea] (1.02 kg ha(-1)) and metolachlor [2-chloro-N-(2-ethyl-6-methylphenyl)-N-(2-methoxy-1-methylethyl)acetamide] (1.18 kg ha(-1)) to a Dundee silt loam (fine-silty, mixed, active, thermic Typic Endoaqualf), simulated rainfall (60 mm h(-1)) was applied to 0.0002-ha microplots for approximately 1.25 h to elucidate tillage (no tillage [NT] and reduced tillage [RT])and cover crop (no cover [NC] and rye cover [RC]) effects on water, sediment, and herbicide loss in surface runoff. Regardless of tillage, RC delayed time-to-runoff 1.3-fold, reduced cumulative runoff volume 1.4-fold, and decreased cumulative sediment loss 4.7-fold. Cumulative fluometuron loss was not affected by tillage or cover crop. Conversely, total metolachlor loss was 1.3-fold lower in NT than RT and 1.4-fold lower in RC than NC. These data indicate that RC can be established in hectarage requiring tillage and potentially curtail water, sediment, and preemergence herbicide losses in the spring to levels equivalent to or better than that of NT, thereby protecting environmental gains provided by GRCs.

Tillage management to mitigate herbicide loss in runoff under simulated rainfall conditions.

Conservation tillage mitigates soil loss in cropland because plant residues help protect the soil, but effects on pesticide movement in surface runoff are not as straightforward. Effects of soil disturbance on surface runoff loss of chlorimuron and alachlor were evaluated utilizing runoff trays. Soil in the trays was either disturbed (tilled) and kept bare or was not tilled, and existing decomposed plant residue was left on the surface. Rainfall (25mm, 20min) was simulated 1d after alachlor (2.8kg ha(-1)) or chlorimuron (54g ha(-1)) application, and runoff was collected. Runoff fractions were analyzed for herbicide and sediment. Total alachlor loss from bare plots was greater than that in no-tillage plots (4.5% vs. 2.3%, respectively). More than one-third of total alachlor lost from bare plots occurred in the first l of runoff, while no-tillage plots had less runoff volume with a more even distribution of alachlor concentration in the runoff during the rainfall simulation and subsequent runoff period. In contrast, more chlorimuron was lost from no-tillage plots than bare plots (12% vs. 1.5%) even though total runoff volume was lower in the no-tillage plots (10.6mm vs. 13.6mm). This was attributed to dense coverage with partially decomposed plant residue in no-tillage plots (1652kg ha(-1)) that intercepted chlorimuron. It was likely that chlorimuron, a polar compound, was more easily washed off surface plant residues and transported in runoff.

Integrating soil conservation practices and glyphosate-resistant crops: impacts on soil.

BACKGROUND: Conservation practices often associated with glyphosate-resistant crops, e.g. limited tillage and crop cover, improve soil conditions, but only limited research has evaluated their effects on soil in combination with glyphosate-resistant crops. It is assumed that conservation practices have similar benefits to soil whether or not glyphosate-resistant crops are used. This paper reviews the impact on soil of conservation practices and glyphosate-resistant crops, and presents data from a Mississippi field trial comparing glyphosate-resistant and non-glyphosate-resistant maize (Zea mays L.) and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) under limited tillage management. RESULTS: Results from the reduced-tillage study indicate differences in soil biological and chemical properties owing to glyphosate-resistant crops. Under continuous glyphosate-resistant maize, soils maintained greater soil organic carbon and nitrogen as compared with continuous non-glyphosate-resistant maize, but no differences were measured in continuous cotton or in cotton rotated with maize. Soil microbial community structure based on total fatty acid methyl ester analysis indicated a significant effect of glyphosate-resistant crop following 5 years of continuous glyphosate-resistant crop as compared with the non-glyphosate-resistant crop system. Results from this study, as well as the literature review, indicate differences attributable to the interaction of conservation practices and glyphosate-resistant crop, but many are transient and benign for the soil ecosystem. CONCLUSIONS: Glyphosate use may result in minor effects on soil biological/chemical properties. However, enhanced organic carbon and plant residues in surface soils under conservation practices may buffer potential effects of glyphosate. Long-term field research established under various cropping systems and ecological regions is needed for critical assessment of glyphosate-resistant crop and conservation practice interactions.

Degradation and sorption of fluometuron and metabolites in conservation tillage soils.

Soil sorption and dissipation of fluometuron (FLM) and three metabolites, desmethyl fluometuron (DMF), trifluoromethyl phenyl urea (TFMPU), and trifluoromethyl aniline (TFMA), were assessed in conservation tillage soils. In study I, surface Dundee silt loam soils from no-tillage (NT) and reduced-tillage (RT) areas were treated with 14C ring-labeled FLM or TFMA or unlabeled DMF, incubated for 34-42 days, extracted, and analyzed. Mineralization and volatilization of 14C-labeled FLM or TFMA were monitored. In study II, batch sorption assays (solute concentrations 2-50 micromol L-1; 2:1 solution:soil; 18 h) were conducted using various soils from reduced- (RT) and conventional-tillage (CT) areas to determine the relative affinity of FLM and metabolites for soils with differing characteristics. Mineralization of FLM (3%, day 42) or TFMA (4%, day 34) and FLM volatilization (approximately 2%) were low for both soils. FLM and DMF dissipated more rapidly in RT soil than in NT soil. In FLM-treated RT soil, DMF and TFMPU accumulated more rapidly than in NT as FLM degraded. TFMA dissipated rapidly, primarily as nonextractable residues (approximately 70%, day 42) and volatilization (approximately 16%). For all respective soils in study II, sorption of all four compounds was higher for organic C-enriched RT soils than for CT soils, indicating strong relationships between organic C and FLM and metabolite sorption. For either tillage treatment, the percentage sorption was greater for metabolites (e.g., at lowest initial dosing concentration, TFMPU range, 45-91%; DMF range, 45-90%; and TFMA range, 45-98%) than for FLM (RT soils range, 19-65%). Nonsubstituted amino groups likely facilitated sorption to organic C, with nonsubstituted aniline in TFMA having the greatest affinity. NMR spectra of humic acid extracts from NT and CT Dundee soils indicated similar patterns of humic acid functional groups, but the potential capacity for sorption was greater in NT than in CT. The greater capacity for FLM and metabolite sorption in NT soil helps explain their longer persistence.

Rapid development of enhanced atrazine degradation in a Dundee silt loam soil under continuous corn and in rotation with cotton.

Mississippi Delta cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) production in rotation with corn (Zea mays L.) was evaluated in field experiments from 2000 to 2005 at Stoneville, Mississippi. Plots maintained under minimum tillage were established in 2000 on a Dundee silt loam with treatments including continuous cotton or corn and alternate cotton-corn rotations. Mineralization and dissipation of 14C [ring]-labeled atrazine were evaluated in the laboratory on soils collected prior to herbicide application in the first, second, third, and sixth years of the study. In soils collected in 2000, a maximum of 10% of the atrazine was mineralized after 30 days. After 1 year of herbicide application, atrazine-treated soils mineralized 52-57% of the radiolabeled atrazine in 30 days. By the sixth year of the study, greater than 59% of the atrazine was mineralized after 7 days in soils treated with atrazine, while soils from plots with no atrazine treatment mineralized less than 36%. The data also indicated rapid development of enhanced atrazine degradation in soils following 1 year of corn production with atrazine use. Atrazine mineralization was as rapid in soils under a rotation receiving biannual atrazine applications as in soils under continuous corn receiving annual applications of atrazine. Cumulative mineralization kinetics parameters derived from the Gompertz model (k and ti) were highly correlated with a history of atrazine application and total soil carbon content. Changes in the soil microbial community assessed by total fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) analysis indicated significant interactions of cropping system and sampling date, with FAME indicators for soil bacteria responsible for differences in community structure. Autoclaved soil lost all ability to mineralize atrazine, and atrazine-mineralizing bacteria were isolated from these plots, confirming the biological basis for atrazine mineralization. These results indicate that changes in degradative potential of a soil can occur rapidly and some changes in soil properties may be associated with cropping systems, which can contribute to enhanced atrazine degradation potential.

Reduced surface runoff losses of metolachlor in narrow-row compared to wide-row soybean.

Cultural management practices that reduce the off-site transport of herbicides applied to row crops are needed to protect surface water quality. A soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] field study was conducted near Stoneville, MS on Sharkey clay to evaluate row spacing (50 cm vs. 100 cm) effects on metolachlor [2-chloro-N-(2-ethyl-6-methylphenyl)-N-(methoxy-1-methylethyl) acetamide] transport. One day after the foliar application of metolachlor to 2.03 m wide by 2.43 m long plots, 60 mm h(-1) of simulated rainfall was applied until 25 min of runoff was generated per plot. The calculated mass of metolachlor intercepted by the soybean foliage was greater in narrow-row than wide-row soybean, 0.39 kg ha(-1) vs. 0.23 kg ha(-1), respectively. Field and laboratory studies indicated that less than 2% of the metolachlor intercepted by the soybean foliage was available for foliar wash-off 1 d after application. Antecedent soil water content at the start of the simulations was lower in narrow-row soybean. In turn, there was a 1.7-fold greater time to runoff on narrow-row plots. The greater time to runoff likely contributed to lower metolachlor concentration in runoff from narrow-row plots. Cumulative metolachlor losses were significantly greater in wide-row than narrow-row soybean, 3.7% vs. 2.2%, respectively. Findings indicate that narrow-row planting systems may reduce metolachlor runoff following a post-emergence application.

Impact of glyphosate-resistant corn, glyphosate applications and tillage on soil nutrient ratios, exoenzyme activities and nutrient acquisition ratios.

BACKGROUND: We report results of the last two years of a 7 year field experiment designed to test the null hypothesis: applications of glyphosate on glyphosate-resistant (GR) and non-resistant (non-GR) corn (Zea mays L.) under conventional tillage and no-till would have no effect on soil exoenzymes and microbial activity. RESULTS: Bulk soil (BS) and rhizosphere soil (RS) macronutrient ratios were not affected by either GR or non-GR corn, or glyphosate applications. Differences observed between exoenzyme activities were associated with tillage rather than glyphosate applications. In 2013, nutrient acquisition ratios for bulk and rhizosphere soils indicated P limitations, but sufficient assimilable N. In 2014, P limitations were observed for bulk and rhizosphere soils, in contrast to balanced C and N acquisition ratios in rhizosphere soils. Stoichiometric relationships indicated few differences between glyphosate and non-glyphosate treatments. Negative correlations between C:P and N:P nutrient ratios and nutrient acquisition ratios underscored the inverse relation between soil nutrient status and microbial community exoenzyme activities. CONCLUSIONS: Inconsistent relationships between microbial community metabolic activity and exoenzyme activity indicated an ephemeral effect of glyphosate on BS exoenzyme activity. Except for ephemeral effects, glyphosate applications appeared not to affect the function of the BS and RS exoenzymes under conventional tillage or no-till. Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Foliar washoff potential and simulated surface runoff losses of trifloxysulfuron in cotton.

The surface runoff potential of trifloxysulfuron {N-[(4,6-dimethoxy-2-pyrimidinyl)carbamoyl]-3-(2,2,2-trifluoroethoy)-pyridin-2-sulfonamide sodium salt} in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) production systems has not been evaluated. The objectives of this study were to (i) determine sorption/desorption coefficients for trifloxysulfuron; (ii) quantify foliar washoff of trifloxysulfuron when applied to cotton at the five-leaf stage; and (iii) determine the surface runoff potential of trifloxysulfuron when applied to cotton at the five-leaf stage and to bare soil. Freundlich sorption and desorption coefficients were 1.15 and 1.22, respectively. Sorption data indicated that trifloxysulfuron was moderately sorbed to soil and that it will be transported primarily in the dissolved phase of surface runoff. Foliar washoff studies revealed that approximately 91% of trifloxysulfuron applied to cotton at the five-leaf stage was available for washoff 72 h after application. Simulated rainfall (7.5 cm h-1) applied 1 day after herbicide application (7.9 g ha-1) resulted in average concentrations of trifloxysulfuron in surface runoff water of 0.8 microg L-1 for bare plots and 1.3 microg L-1 for cotton plots. Cumulative trifloxysulfuron losses in surface runoff from bare plots and cotton plots were 0.13 and 0.21 g ha-1, respectively. These values correspond to fractional losses of 1.7% for bare plots and 2.7% for cotton plots. Greater runoff losses of trifloxysulfuron from cotton plots were attributed to foliar washoff. Trifloxysulfuron runoff losses may be curtailed if the herbicide is applied early postemergence when canopy coverage is minimal, thereby reducing the potential for foliar washoff.

Influence of watershed system management on herbicide concentrations in Mississippi Delta oxbow lakes.

The Mississippi Delta Management Systems Evaluation Area (MD-MSEA) project was established in 1994 in three small watersheds (202 to 1,497 ha) that drain into oxbow lakes (Beasley, Deep Hollow, and Thighman). The primary research objective was to assess the implications of management practices on water quality. Monthly monitoring of herbicide concentrations in lake water was conducted from 2000 to 2003. Water samples were analyzed for atrazine, cyanazine, fluometuron, metolachlor, and atrazine metabolites. Herbicide concentrations observed in the lake water reflected cropping systems of the watershed, e.g., atrazine and metolachlor concentrations were associated with the level of corn and sorghum production, whereas cyanazine and fluometuron was associated with the level of glyphosate-sensitive cotton production. The dynamics of herbicide appearance and dissipation in lake samples were strongly influenced by herbicide use, lake hydrology, rainfall pattern, and land management practices. The highest maximum concentrations of atrazine (7.1 to 23.4 microg L(-1)) and metolachlor (0.7 to 14.9 microg L(-1)) were observed in Thighman Lake where significant quantities of corn were grown. Introduction of s-metolachlor and use of glyphosate-resistant cotton coincided with reduced concentration of metolachlor in lake water. Cyanazine was observed in two lakes with the highest levels (1.6 to 5.5 microg L(-1)) in 2000 and lower concentrations in 2001 and 2002 (<0.4 microg L(-1)). Reduced concentrations of fluometuron in Beasley Lake were associated with greater use of glyphosate-resistant cotton and correspondingly less need for soil-applied fluometuron herbicide. In contrast, increased levels of fluometuron were observed in lake water after Deep Hollow was converted from conservation tillage to conventional tillage, presumably due to greater runoff associated with conventional tillage. These studies indicate that herbicide concentrations observed in these three watersheds were related to crop and soil management practices.

Simultaneous determination of mercury and organic carbon in sediment and soils using a direct mercury analyzer based on thermal decomposition-atomic absorption spectrophotometry.

The purpose of this work was to study the feasibility of using a direct mercury analyzer (DMA) to simultaneously determine mercury (Hg) and organic matter content in sediment and soils. Organic carbon was estimated by re-weighing the sample boats post analysis to obtain loss-on-ignition (LOI) data. The DMA-LOI results were statistically similar (p<0.05) to the conventional muffle furnace approach. A regression equation was developed to convert DMA-LOI data to total organic carbon (TOC), which varied between 0.2% and 13.0%. Thus, mercury analyzers based on combustion can provide accurate estimates of organic carbon content in non-calcareous sediment and soils; however, weight gain from moisture (post-analysis), measurement uncertainty, and sample representativeness should all be taken into account. Sediment cores from seasonal wetland and open water areas from six oxbow lakes in the Mississippi River alluvial flood plain were analyzed. Wetland sediments generally had higher levels of Hg than open water areas owing to a greater fraction of fine particles and higher levels of organic matter. Annual loading of Hg in open water areas was estimated at 4.3, 13.4, 19.2, 20.7, 129, and 135 ng cm(-2) yr(-1) for Beasley, Roundaway, Hampton, Washington, Wolf and Sky Lakes, respectively. Generally, the interval with the highest Hg flux was dated to the 1960s and 1970s.

Aqueous pesticide mitigation efficiency of Typha latifolia (L.), Leersia oryzoides (L.) Sw., and Sparganium americanum Nutt.

Agricultural pesticide use is necessary to help meet the increased demand for a safe and secure food supply for the United States, as well as the global community. Even with proper application and careful management, the possibility of pesticide leaching and detachment in runoff still exists following certain storm events. Several different management practices have been designed to reduce the impacts of pesticides on aquatic receiving systems. Many such practices focus on the use of vegetation to slow runoff and allow for sorption of the various contaminants. Three common drainage ditch macrophytes, Leersia oryzoides (cutgrass), Typha latifolia (cattail), and Sparganium americanum (bur-reed) were assessed for their ability to reduce effluent loads of atrazine, diazinon, and permethrin in simulated agricultural runoff water in 379L individual mesocosms. Of the three macrophytes examined, L. oryzoides was the most effective at mitigating atrazine, and permethrin. L. oryzoides and T. latifolia significantly reduced overall atrazine loads (45±7%, p=0.0073 and 35±8%, p=0.0421, respectively) when compared to unvegetated controls (13±20%). No significant differences in overall diazinon load retention were noted between plant species. Each plant species significantly decreased the initial load (after 6h) of trans-permethrin, while both L. oryzoides and T. latifolia significantly reduced the overall trans-permethrin loads (88±5%, p=0.0022 and 88±5%, p=0.0020, respectively) when compared to unvegetated controls (68±8%). Reversible adsorption of atrazine and diazinon to plants, noted during the flushing events, was greater than that observed in either cis- or trans-permethrin. These results demonstrate the ability of native ditch vegetation to mitigate pesticides associated with agricultural runoff. Likewise, they provide farmers and action agencies with supportive data for selection of vegetation in drainage ditches used as management practices.