Differentiating between human and non-human interspecies embryos.

Following the debate in the UK House of Lords, in December 2012, uncertainty remains as to the manner in which human and non-human interspecies embryos are differentiated in law.

A quantitative analysis of stored frozen surplus embryos in the UK.

The number of surplus frozen human embryos in storage in the United Kingdom (UK) is at its highest level since records began in 1991 and the formation of the UK Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA). This study features a quantitative analysis of data from 1991 to 2019 provided by the HFEA as well as a commentary on observed trends within this data. We also discuss trends relating to the final destiny of surplus embryos. Data analysis show that at least 130,000 stored embryos have been discarded in the UK since 1991, while another 500,000 embryos are currently being stored in a frozen state, of which a significant proportion is likely to be discarded in the future. However, this creates a moral dilemma since UK legislation relating to human embryos is based on the 1984 Warnock Report which recognizes that they have a special moral status.

Why human germline genome editing is incompatible with equality in an inclusive society.

Human germline genome editing is increasingly being seen as acceptable provided certain conditions are satisfied. Accordingly, genetic modifications would take place on eggs or sperm (or their precursor cells) as well as very early embryos for the purpose of bringing children into existence with or without particular genetic traits. In this context, a number of already discussed and separate arguments, such as the (1) synecdoche, (2) non-identity (3) inherent equality and (4) expressivist arguments, can be brought together in the new context of examining, from an ethical perspective, some of the possible consequences of such germline genome editing. In so doing, it becomes clear that these novel procedures are incompatible with the concept of equality in value and in worth of all human beings in a genuinely inclusive society. Such equality is expressed in Article 1 of the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights which states that: 'All human beings are born … equal in dignity and rights.'

Geneva Statement on Heritable Human Genome Editing: The Need for Course Correction.

As public interest advocates, policy experts, bioethicists, and scientists, we call for a course correction in public discussions about heritable human genome editing. Clarifying misrepresentations, centering societal consequences and concerns, and fostering public empowerment will support robust, global public engagement and meaningful deliberation about altering the genes of future generations.

Genome Modifying Reproductive Procedures and their Effects on Numerical Identity.

The advantages and risks of a number of new genome modifying procedures seeking to create healthy or enhanced individuals, such as Maternal Spindle Transfer, Pronuclear Transfer, Cytoplasmic Transfer and Genome Editing, are currently being assessed from an ethical perspective, by national and international policy organizations. One important aspect being examined concerns the effects of these procedures on different kinds of identity. In other words, whether or not a procedure only modifies the qualities or properties of an existing human being, meaning that merely the qualitative identity of this single individual is affected, or whether a procedure results in the creation of a new individual, meaning that a numerically distinct human being would have come into existence. In this article, the different identity arguments proposed, so far, are presented with respect to these novel reproductive procedures. An alternative view is then developed using the Origin Essentialism argument to indicate that any change in the creative conditions of an individual such as in his or her biology but also the moment in time, and the three dimensions of space, will have a numerical identity effect and bring into existence a new individual who would not, otherwise, have existed. Because of this, it is concluded that a form of selection may have taken place in which a preference was expressed for one new possible individual instead of another, based on some frame of reference. This may then mean that a selection between persons has occured  contravening the European Union Charter of Fundamental Rights which was ratified in 2000.

Kinship Identities in the Context of UK Maternal Spindle Transfer and Pronuclear Transfer Legislation.

In the discussions leading up to the enactment of the UK Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Mitochondrial Donation) Regulations 2015, it was repeatedly emphasised, by many commentators, that maternal spindle transfer (MST) and pronuclear transfer (PNT) did not give rise to children who could be considered as having three or more parents. This was because it was argued that only the genetic material found in the chromosomes should be considered as the determining factor for the formation of parent-child relationships and the resulting kinship identities. In this present study, however, this assertion will be questioned in the light of different kinds and different understandings of kinship identities. It will also be suggested that any person who is partly responsible for the very existence of a child, through any means, may qualify as a causal parent - a parent whom the resulting child may want to identify. As a result, a positive response should be given to a request from a person born from MST and PNT concerning identifying information for all the individuals responsible for bringing him or her into existence. In the light of this, the article will conclude that it is regrettable that the UK government enacted binding legislation making sure that children, born through MST and PNT, will never be able to contact the egg donors and, in the case of PNT, the sperm donors. This reflects a very limited understanding of who parents really are and may give rise to serious long-term psychological distress in the prospective children.

Representative Aspects of Some Synthetic Gametes.

With the development of new procedures in the production of synthetic human gametes it has become important to re-examine the manner in which reproductive cells, taking part in the generation of children, can be understood. Though this can be attempted from many different perspectives, the present study will examine the possibility of considering gametes as representing the persons from whom they originated. From this perspective, it is possible to suggest that, in procreation, the entirety of each human sperm cell may represent and reveal the man from whom it was produced and the entirety of each human egg cell may represent and reveal the woman from whom it was produced. The possible ethical consequences of using synthetic gametes for those who hold this perspective together with their understanding of relational identity will also be examined.

Human organ markets and inherent human dignity.

It has been suggested that human organs should be bought and sold on a regulated market as any other material property belongingto an individual. This would have the advantage of both addressing the grave shortage of organs available for transplantation and respecting the freedom of individuals to choose to do whatever they want with their body parts. The old arguments against such a market in human organs are, therefore, being brought back into question. The article examines the different arguments both in favour and against the sale of human organs. It concludes that the body and any of its elements is a full expression of the whole person. As such, they cannot have a price if the individual is to retain his or her full inherent dignity and if society is to retain and protect this very important concept.