A call-to-action to assist in efforts to protect owl monkeys (Aotus spp.).

The majority of the 11 species of owl monkeys (Aotus spp.) have declining populations or are listed as data deficient. Deforestation due to agriculture, development, or logging poses threats to owl monkeys throughout their range. In some areas, Aotus are hunted for bushmeat or trapped for the wildlife trade. In Colombia, the country with the greatest number of Aotus species, owl monkeys are also threatened by civil unrest. To help combat these challenges, nonprofit organizations and field researchers in habitat countries have successfully implemented a variety of conservation projects such as censusing and monitoring owl monkey populations, establishing protected areas, reforesting degraded areas, filing lawsuits to protect wild populations, helping law enforcement with environmental regulation, and promoting environmental education. We highlight some of the conservation successes and suggest actions people around the world can take to contribute to these important efforts.

Parentally deprived juvenile Owl monkeys suffer from long-term high infection rates but not from altered hair cortisol concentrations nor from stereotypic behaviours.

BACKGROUND: In captive colonies, owl monkeys' mothers sometimes reject their newborns. To prevent, mortality infants are manually raised by veterinarians. Both parental separation and rejection are stressful experiences, associated with elevated stress, physical, and behavioural disorders. The effect of parental deprivation in IVITA's owl monkeys stress profiles and health is unknown. METHODS: We compared stress biomarkers such as hair cortisol (using cortisol ELISA), stereotypic behaviours (with infrared cameras), and infection histories in juveniles separated from parents soon after birth (n = 14, ~17 months) and controls (n = 11, ~17 months). RESULTS: Parentally deprived owl monkeys show higher infection rates than controls (p = .001). However, they display no higher incidence of biomarkers of stress: Neither stereotypic behaviour nor cortisol in hair was different between cohorts. Irrespective of deprivation status, rates of infection, and concentration of cortisol in hair were positively associated (R2 = .29, p = .005). CONCLUSION: Early parental deprivation and natural high levels of cortisol secretion are associated with elevated infection levels in the IVITA owl monkey juveniles detectable up to 17 months post separation.

Disappearing in the Night: An Overview on Trade and Legislation of Night Monkeys in South and Central America.

The international trade in night monkeys (Aotus spp.), found throughout Central and South America, has been regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since 1975. We present a quantitative analysis of this trade from all 9 range countries, over 4 decades, and compare domestic legislation to CITES regulations. Night monkeys were exported from 8 of the 9 habitat countries, totalling 5,968 live individuals and 7,098 specimens, with trade of live individuals declining over time. In terms of species, the most commonly traded was Aotus nancymaae (present in Brazil, Colombia, Peru) followed by A. vociferans (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru) and A. zonalis (Colombia, Panama). There was no significant correlation between levels of trade and species' geographic range size or the number of countries in which a species occurs. Five countries have legislation that meets CITES requirements for implementation, whereas the other 4 countries' legislation showed deficiencies. Research conducted in Colombia, Peru, and Brazil suggests significant cross-border trade not captured in official international trade registers. Although international trade has diminished, current trends suggest that populations of rarer species may be under unsustainable pressure. Further research is needed to quantify real trade numbers occurring between habitat countries.

Research and in situ conservation of owl monkeys enhances environmental law enforcement at the Colombian-Peruvian border.

This study reports on impacts of illegal trade in owl monkeys (Aotus nancymaae, A. vociferans) for the biomedical research market in the Colombian-Peruvian Amazonian border. Through freedom of information requests and interviews with hunters we found that 912 owl monkeys, including A. nancymaae captured in Peru, were trapped over a 3-month period in 2012 to supply a malaria research facility based in Leticia, Colombia, which had trapping permits for the use of only 800 A. vociferans annually yet experimentation took place using A. nancymaae. High levels of extraction in Peru have had population-level impacts with significantly lower densities of Aotus spp. (3-24 individuals/km(2)) compared to Colombian sites with low hunting pressure (26-44 individuals/km(2)). Post-experimental release of this species in Colombian territory has created a new distribution whose status and impacts on resident populations of A. vociferans remain unknown. The trapping method has also had environmental impact, with loss of over 65,000 trees (including sleeping sites), annually. As Aotus species are registered under the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix II, international trade requires official permission and evidence that extraction does not impact wild populations. However, no official records exist and CITES legislation has failed, due principally to a lack of appropriate monitoring by national authorities responsible for compliance. Of further concern is that we had previously documented and reported the illegal trade to the appropriate governmental authorities yet still no action was taken-as demonstrated by the continuing trade in 2013. Enforcement eventually occurred when a non-governmental organization initiated legal action against organizations responsible. A successful second instance ruling by the Colombian State's Council in 2013 revoked trapping permits. Using the trade in owl monkeys as a case study we consider implementation, compliance, and enforcement of CITES in the border area to identify mechanisms to improve enforcement of environmental legislation.

Human-nonhuman primate interactions amongst Tikuna people: perceptions and local initiatives for resource management in Amacayacu in the Colombian Amazon.

This study assesses the impact of hunting on the densities of nonhuman primates in two indigenous Tikuna territories (Mocagua and San Martín), overlapping Amacayacu National Park in the Colombian Amazon. Large-bodied primates were once favored prey by Tikunas, but are now rarely hunted owing to the diminishing primate populations. We evaluate the effect of a hunting ban on woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagothricha) by the residents of Mocagua, using qualitative and quantitative methods. Hunting records showed that from February 2005 to February 2009, a total of 25,142 kg of mammal bushmeat were harvested in Mocagua and San Martín. Primates constituted 345 kg of the total harvest. From 223 kg of large-bodied primates extracted for subsistence purposes, 160 kg were hunted in San Martín and 64 kg in Mocagua. Large-bodied primates made up 70% of the total primate biomass in Mocagua (398 kg/km(2)) and 22% in San Martín (199 kg/km(2)). From dietary records, we found bushmeat constituted 30% of protein consumption in Mocagua and 37% in San Martín. Primates were absent in records from Mocagua, and appeared only three times in those from San Martín suggesting inconsistencies with hunting data. Despite its moderate consumption, bushmeat was identified as a highly valued food source during focus group activities. Primate pet-keeping and part utilization were observed in San Martín but not in Mocagua, possibly as a consequence of fewer primates being hunted. We suggest that Mocagua provides an example of how community-based conservation strategies can be achieved, where opportunities for employment in tourism and alternative food sources are available.