A Mixed-Methods Longitudinal Investigation of Mothers' Disclosure of HIV to Their Children.

Mothers living with HIV (MLH) must navigate disclosing their serostatus to their children, but the longitudinal impact on families remains unknown. This study examined HIV disclosure, parenting, parenting stress, and child adjustment among 174 MLH-child dyads (aged 6-14; 35% Latinx; 57% Black/African American). Quantitative data were collected over four waves spanning 15 months. Qualitative data were collected with 14 families in which disclosure had occurred. Latent change score modeling revealed that disclosure led to improvements in parenting stress, communication, and relationship quality. Disclosure did not predict child adjustment. Qualitative themes contextualized these findings, revealing stability and improvements in family functioning. MLH should be supported in disclosing their serostatus to their children to minimize parenting stress and bolster parenting skills.

Impact of Affect Balance on Cognitive and Physical Function in Adults With and Without Fibromyalgia.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the potential benefits of heightened levels of affect balance in older adults with and without chronic pain on various cognitive domains, physical performance, and perceived cognitive and physical health. METHOD: Ninety-one older adults, some with and some without fibromyalgia (FM) participated. Objective tests included cognitive (immediate and delayed recall, delayed recognition-CERAD 10-item word list) and physical measures (Fullerton Advanced Balance Scale; lower body strength-30-s chair stand; gait velocity-30-ft. walk). Self-report measures were problems with forgetting, activities of daily living (perceived function), and affect (Positive and Negative Affect Scale [PANAS]). Affect balance was calculated as positive minus negative affect from the PANAS. RESULTS: Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that-regardless of FM status-higher affect balance was associated with better episodic memory performance (immediate recall, delayed recognition), better balance, enhanced lower body strength (more chair stands), and healthier gait (30-ft. walk), as well as less forgetfulness and better perceived functional health. CONCLUSION: Increased affect balance was associated with better objective and subjective health in older adults both without and with chronic pain. Positive psychology treatments which increase affect balance are easy to administer, cost effective, and may add an important, additional treatment modality for maintaining health in normal aging adults as well as those with chronic pain. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In order to help patients with healthy aging, nurses need to be aware of the potential long-term effect of emotional state on overall function and be able to counsel patients regarding potential treatments to enhance positive global emotions such as resilience.

Does Maternal HIV Disclosure Self-Efficacy Enhance Parent-Child Relationships and Child Adjustment?

Nondisclosure of maternal HIV status to young children can negatively impact child functioning; however, many mothers do not disclose due to lack of self-efficacy for the disclosure process. This study examines demographic variations in disclosure self-efficacy, regardless of intention to disclose, and assesses the relationship between self-efficacy and child adjustment via the parent-child relationship among a sample of HIV+ mothers and their healthy children (N = 181 pairs). Mothers completed demographic and self-efficacy measures; children completed measures assessing the parent-child relationship and child adjustment (i.e., worry, self-concept, depression). Across demographics, few mothers reported confidence in disclosure. Results from covariance structural modeling showed mothers endorsing higher self-efficacy had children who reported better relationship quality, and, in turn, reported fewer adjustment difficulties; higher levels of disclosure self-efficacy also directly predicted fewer adjustment problems. Findings offer support for interventions aimed at providing mothers with skills to enhance confidence for disclosing their HIV status.

Validation of a brief measure of HIV health-related anxiety among women living with HIV.

Anxiety symptoms related to health are often present in populations coping with chronic illness, and among women living with HIV (WLWH), anxiety has been linked to a range of negative outcomes. This paper describes the validation of a four-item instrument designed to measure health-related anxiety (HRA) in WLWH by assessing the impact of thinking about HIV status and health on difficulty sleeping, lack of appetite, reduced desire to socialize, and difficulty concentrating at school or work. The scale was administered to 238 adult WLWH across three studies. Exploratory factor analysis revealed a one-factor solution; multi-group confirmatory factor invariance analyses supported the single factor model. For construct and criterion validity, correlations between the HRA scale and validated instruments measuring psychological, psychosocial, and physical distress were as predicted. Results support the validity of the HRA scale among WLWH as a brief measure of anxiety related to HIV status and health.

Pilot trial of a parenting and self-care intervention for HIV-positive mothers: the IMAGE program.

A pilot study was conducted to assess the effects of the IMAGE pilot intervention (Improving Mothers' parenting Abilities, Growth, and Effectiveness) on mothers living with HIV (MLH). Based on Fisher and Fisher's IMB model [1992. Changing AIDS risk behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 455-474], the intervention focused on self-care and parenting behavior skills of MLH that affect maternal, child, and family outcomes. A randomized pre-test-post-test two-group design with repeated assessments was used. MLH (n = 62) and their children aged 6-14 (n = 62; total N = 124) were recruited for the trial and randomized to the theory-based skills training condition or a standard care control condition. Assessments were conducted at baseline with follow-ups at 3, 6, and 12 months. Maternal, child, and family outcomes were assessed. Results show significant effects of the intervention for improving parenting practices for mothers. The intervention also improved family outcomes, and showed improvements in the parent-child relationship. IMAGE had a positive impact on parenting behaviors, and on maternal, child, and family outcomes. Given MLH can be challenged by their illness and also live in under-resourced environments, IMAGE may be viewed as a viable way to improve quality of life and family outcomes.

Predictors of serostatus nondisclosure in mothers living with human immunodeficiency virus receiving a disclosure intervention: Analysis of a randomized clinical trial intervention arm.

OBJECTIVE: The current study applied survival analysis to examine factors associated with nondisclosure of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) serostatus among mothers living with HIV (MLH) who had participated in a cognitive-behavioral intervention to disclose their HIV status to their children. METHOD: Data were utilized from MLH in the intervention arm of the teaching, raising, and communicating with kids (TRACK; Schulte et al., 2021) trial focusing on serostatus disclosure/nondisclosure across four time points (baseline, 3, 9, and 15 months). MLH (Mage = 39.4) resided in California or Georgia and identified as Latina (33%), Black (54%), White (5%), or multiracial (8%). Physical, mental health, and psychosocial measures from the 3-month assessment were used to predict nondisclosure applying Cox regression survival analysis. RESULTS: Nondisclosure was associated with MLH reporting better physical and mental health, less conflict with their child, better cohesion within their families, and less perceived stigma. MLH reporting better physical functioning were 58% less likely to disclose compared to those reporting physical limitations (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.42). Those reporting lower levels of disclosure self-efficacy were 59% less likely to disclose than those reporting higher levels (HR = 2.47); by 67 weeks into the study, the nondisclosure rate was 56% for those reporting lower self-efficacy compared to 24% for those reporting higher self-efficacy. CONCLUSIONS: Addressing the inclination not to disclose when the MLH is feeling healthy may be an aspect to incorporate into future interventions. Furthermore, improving disclosure self-efficacy to a high level appears to be a critical component to intervention success. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Self-competence Among Early and Middle Adolescents Affected by Maternal HIV/AIDS.

Adolescent children of mothers with HIV face a host of stressors that place them at increased risk for poor outcomes. Using covariance structure analysis, this study examines adolescent risk outcomes and their relationships to maternal health, as well as the potentially protective factors of family environment and self-competence. The final model indicated that poor maternal health was negatively related to a protective family environment, which in turn was negatively related to adolescent risk outcomes. A protective family environment was also positively related to adolescent self-competence, which was negatively related to adolescent risk outcomes. Implications of the study are discussed, including how these findings can influence interventions aimed at reducing the risk for poor outcomes among adolescent youth with HIV-infected mothers.

Implementing a multisite efficacy trial to facilitate maternal disclosure to children: the TRACK HIV Disclosure Intervention.

HIV remains prevalent, stigmatized, and requires parents to decide whether and how to disclose to their serostatus to their children. Teaching Raising And Communicating with Kids (TRACK), an intervention to support maternal disclosure of HIV status to children, demonstrated efficacy through a pilot and a full-scale multisite trial. In response to the limited availability of best practices for conducting multisite research and recognizing the importance of identification of key intervention components, the current manuscript presents the traditional elements of an implementation paper along with secondary data analyses to identify drivers of the intervention's effects. Black, Latinx, and White mothers living with HIV (mean age = 39.27, SD = 7.89) and their children (51% female, mean age = 9.65, SD = 2.48) were recruited in Southern California and Atlanta (N = 176 dyads). Following baseline assessments, half were randomized to the intervention. Follow-up assessments occurred at 3, 9, and 15 months. Implementation and quality assurance protocols revealed the need for a broad range of recruitment and retention strategies, ongoing assessment of participants' psychological distress, and joint initial training of study personnel with ongoing supervision. Based on linear growth modeling, key intervention components (i.e., parent-child communication, positive parent involvement and reinforcement, family routines) significantly contributed to disclosure self-efficacy, the primary intervention target. Lessons learned emphasized the need to balance fidelity to the research protocol with strategies for managing site-based differences and the importance of including all key intervention components for future implementation at clinical or community-based sites.

Multisite longitudinal efficacy trial of a disclosure intervention (TRACK) for HIV+ mothers.

OBJECTIVE: The Teaching, Raising, And Communicating with Kids (TRACK) study was a full-scale longitudinal efficacy trial of a previously successful pilot intervention, which aims to assist mothers living with HIV (MLH) with serostatus disclosure to their children. The study looked to test the key components of the theoretical model with a more diverse sample than that of the pilot. METHOD: MLH (mean age = 39.27, SD 7.89) and their children (6-14 years) were recruited in Southern California and Atlanta and randomized to an intervention or wait-list control group (N = 176 dyads). TRACK used behavioral exercises within three individual sessions, with assessments at baseline, 3-, 9-, and 15-month follow-ups regarding HIV disclosure, targeted intermediate variables (communication, parental coping, family routines, and disclosure self-efficacy), and outcome variables for MLH's health and mental health, children's mental health, and family relationships/functioning. RESULTS: TRACK MLH were four times more likely to disclose their HIV serostatus than controls, with the rate increasing to six times more likely applying generalized estimating equation (GEE) logistic regression. Intervention MLH showed improvements in communication, social support, family routines, and most significantly, disclosure self-efficacy. Intervention MLH demonstrated decreased anxiety and better mental health scores; their children reported significantly more decline in worry than controls. This full-scale trial, over and above the pilot, showed the intervention improved outcomes across multiple sites, and found all targeted intermediate variables improved in the intervention group relative to the control group. CONCLUSIONS: TRACK helped mothers to disclose their status to their children and improved mental health outcomes, especially anxiety. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Anxiety/stress among mothers living with HIV: effects on parenting skills and child outcomes.

Parental HIV infection has been associated with negative outcomes for children, and parenting skills appear to be one mechanism operating in that association. The present study focuses on the relations between maternal stress, parenting, and child functioning among families where the mother is living with HIV. Sixty-nine mothers with at least one child between six and 12 years old completed questionnaires at the baseline assessment of an intervention designed to facilitate maternal disclosure of HIV status. Respondents were assessed using multiple measures of stress/anxiety, parenting skills, and child outcomes, including the Parenting Stress Index, the RAND Mental Health Inventory, the Family Routines Questionnaire, and the Child Behavior Checklist. Covariance structural modeling was used to assess the variable relationships, with latent constructs created for maternal anxiety/stress, parenting skills, and child problem behaviors (both direct and indirect effects were evaluated, with a model-based bootstrap used to verify model stability). Results demonstrated that maternal stress was negatively associated with a broad range of parenting skills, and that parenting skills were negatively associated with child problem behaviors. Mothers living with HIV who are anxious about their own health and functioning, and who were more stressed in their parental role, were more likely to exhibit poorer parenting skills - specifically to engage children less frequently in family routines (e.g., eating meals together, having a bedtime routine), poorer parent-child communication, and poorer and less consistent parenting discipline. Not uncommonly, mothers living with HIV experience a range of stressors above and beyond those related to their illness (e.g., poverty, residence in high risk and low resource communities, discrimination). Results demonstrate the need for interventions designed to decrease maternal stress and enhance parenting skills for families affected by HIV.

Family routines and parental monitoring as protective factors among early and middle adolescents affected by maternal HIV/AIDS.

The influence of parenting skills on adolescent outcomes among children affected by maternal HIV/AIDS (N = 118, M age = 13) was investigated. Among families with more frequent family routines, over time adolescents showed lower rates of aggression, anxiety, worry, depression, conduct disorder, binge drinking, and increased self-concept. Among families with higher levels of parental monitoring, adolescents showed significant declines in anxiety and depression, conduct disorder, and binge drinking, along with increased self-concept. Mothers' level of illness was associated with parenting. Greater variability in parental monitoring resulted in higher levels of problem behaviors.

HIV and Mother-Child Conflict: Associations with Mother's Mental and Physical Health.

Maternal illness is a stressor that can disrupt family processes and contribute to negative child outcomes, and researchers have considered family variables that mediate or moderate the maternal illness-child outcome relationship. Through reliance on a diverse sample (ethnically and racially, as well as geographically), the current study expands prior literature with a focus on parent-child conflict. Specifically, associations between aspects of HIV positive mothers' illness and mother-child conflict were explored. One goal of the study was to determine if there were direct or indirect associations with aspects of mothers' HIV and mother-child conflict. HIV-positive mothers (N = 136) provided CD4 count and completed measures assessing their perceived level of physical functioning, depressive symptoms, HIV health-related anxiety, and mother-child conflict with their healthy school-age children. Path analysis considered the pattern of relationships across variables. Results showed maternal vitality and depressive symptoms were directly associated with mother-child conflict. CD4 cell count and health-related anxiety operated indirectly through maternal depressive symptoms. Mediation analyses further assessed the influence of maternal CD4 cell count on mother-child conflict behavior; results indicated an indirect effect was mediated by vitality. HIV health-related anxiety and vitality separately showed indirect effects on mother-child conflict, mediated by maternal depressive symptoms. These findings are the first to focus on mother-child conflict among children affected by maternal HIV and highlight the need for screening and intervention to address depressive symptoms among HIV-positive mothers.

Alcohol use, mental health, and parenting practices among HIV-positive mothers.

Mothers living with HIV (MLH) must balance childcare, their illness, and oftentimes other mental health problems/stressors. It is important to understand how a maladaptive coping strategy, (alcohol use) is linked to poorer parenting practices. We assessed the relationship between mental health/coping (anxiety, depression, alcohol use, social support) and parenting/family dimensions (communication, parenting style/stress, family routines/cohesion) among 152 MLH. Mothers reporting more psychiatric symptoms and less social support also reported poorer parenting practices and interactions. Further, MLH who used more alcohol reported less parenting involvement and fewer family interactions. Alcohol use, even at subclinical levels, can negatively impact the parent-child relationship.

Sexual deception as a social-exchange process: development of a behavior-based sexual deception scale.

The use of deception in association with sexual encounters may take many forms, ranging from outright lies to more subtle, evasive manipulations. To address such deceptions, a behavior-based sexual deception scale was developed utilizing social exchange theory. Participants were 267 individuals associated with two large universities who were surveyed regarding different aspects of their sexual deceptive behaviors. In addition, items addressing sexually related behaviors and attitudes were assessed for validation purposes. Principal components analysis identified three components of sexual deception, labeled Blatant Lying, Self-Serving, and Avoiding Confrontation. Confirmatory factor analysis verified the resulting structure, and promising validity was noted. In general, those using any of these deceptions reported more sexual partners and one-night stands. Those telling blatant lies to have sex were more likely to report greater needs for sex, while those using self-serving lies or having sex to avoid confrontation experienced greater worry about partner loss. Men were more likely to use blatant lies to have sex, while women were more likely to have sex to avoid confrontation. Results support sexual deception as an exchange process, with sex for pleasure and positive relationship outcomes acting as rewards, and unwanted sex and deception consequences as costs. Implications for health interventions and primary prevention applications are discussed.

Maternal Parenting Stress and Child Perception of Family Functioning Among Families Affected by HIV.

Mothers living with HIV (MLWH) experience stressors inherent to parenting, often within a context characterized by poverty, stigma, and/or limited social support. Our study assessed the relationship between parenting stress and child perceptions of family functioning in families with MLWH who have healthy school-age children. MLWH and their children (N = 102 pairs) completed measures addressing parenting stress and perceptions of family functioning (i.e., parent-child communication, family routines, and family cohesion). We used covariance structural modeling to evaluate the relationship between these factors, with results showing greater maternal parenting stress associated with poorer family functioning outcomes (reported by both the child and the mother). Findings offer support for the parenting stress-family functioning relationship by providing the child perspective along with the maternal perspective, and point to the need for interventions aimed at minimizing the impact of maternal parenting stress on family functioning.

Cardiovascular function following surgical repair of pectus excavatum: a metaanalysis.

BACKGROUND: Despite numerous published reports, there is no consensus in the literature as to whether the surgical repair of the pectus excavatum improves cardiovascular function. As a result, it has been suggested that correction should be considered a cosmetic procedure, and therefore, many health insurance companies have questioned whether the repair of the pectus excavatum improves cardiovascular function and thus are reluctant to authorize the procedure. The purpose of this study was to apply metaanalysis methodology to generate a quantitative synthesis of the effects of surgical repair on cardiovascular function and to test the hypothesis that surgical repair of the pectus excavatum results in significant improvements in cardiovascular function. METHODS: Studies were retrieved via computerized literature searches, cross-referencing from original and review articles, and a review of the reference list by a recognized authority in the area of pectus excavatum repair. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) reporting quantitative measures of preoperative and postoperative cardiovascular function; (2) published in the English language; (3) indexed between January 1960 and May 2005; (4) reporting the duration between which preoperative and postoperative assessments were conducted; and (5) describing the cardiovascular assessment procedures. RESULTS: A comprehensive search of the literature identified eight studies that met all of the inclusion criteria. These studies, representing 169 pectus excavatum patients, were used for the metaanalysis. Random-effects modeling yielded a mean weighted effect size (ES) for cardiovascular function that was statistically significant (ES, 0.59; 95% confidence interval, 0.25 to 0.92; p = 0.0006). CONCLUSIONS: The findings of the present study indicated that surgical repair of the pectus excavatum significantly improves cardiovascular function and contradicts arguments that surgical repair is primarily cosmetic yielding minimal physiologic improvement.

Pulmonary function following surgical repair of pectus excavatum: a meta-analysis.

The purpose of this study was to use a meta-analytical technique to examine the efficacy of surgical repair of pectus excavatum on pulmonary function. Studies were retrieved via computerized literature searches, cross-referencing from original and review articles. Inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) reporting quantitative measures of preoperative and postoperative pulmonary function; (2) published in the English language; (3) indexed between January 1960 and September 2005; (4) reporting the duration between which preoperative and postoperative assessments were conducted; and (5) describing the pulmonary assessment procedures. The titles and abstracts of potentially relevant articles were reviewed to determine whether they met the criteria for inclusion. Twelve studies representing 313 pectus excavatum patients met the inclusion criteria and were used for the meta-analysis. Random-effects modeling yielded a mean weighted effect size (ES) for pulmonary function which was statistically nonsignificant (ES=0.08, 95% CI=-0.20 to 0.35; P=0.58). The findings of the present study indicated that surgical repair of pectus excavatum does not significantly improve pulmonary function. These findings, however, may be a result of testing pulmonary function under conditions in which pectus excavatum does not manifest itself.

Career readiness and externalizing behaviors of children affected by maternal HIV/AIDS: 15-year outcomes of the PACT study.

The purpose of this 15-year longitudinal study was to assess the effects of maternal HIV/AIDS on child/adolescent career readiness and externalizing behaviors. Interviews were conducted with 66 pairs of healthy children and their mothers living with HIV/AIDS (MLH), who are participants in the Parents And children Coping Together (PACT) project begun in 1997. All study participants were English or Spanish speaking. About half (48.5%) of the youth were female. Maternal health status (e.g., viral load biomedical marker, illness symptoms, physical functioning and depression) and child/adolescent outcomes (e.g., career readiness, conduct disorder, drug use, sexual behaviors, parent attachment and youth autonomy) were assessed over 20 time-points. Individual growth and GEE logistic regression models showed lower variability in maternal viral load was positively associated with better career readiness and parent attachment among adolescent/young adults. Externalizing behaviors (conduct disorder, alcohol and crystal methamphetamine use) were positively associated with maternal depression. Adolescent coping efficacy was shown to be a protective factor when applied to models on career readiness. Stability in MLH health positively affects children's career readiness over time, particularly career planning and career choices. The finding that adolescent coping efficacy may act as a protective factor against poor career planning has important implications for developing interventions to assist children in coping with parental HIV.

Children affected by maternal HIV/AIDS: feasibility and acceptability trial of the Children United with Buddies (CUB) intervention.

Past research has shown that young children affected by maternal HIV present with elevated stress/anxiety and negative well-being. This pilot intervention for children aged 7-14 affected by maternal HIV targeted improving positive child-mother communication, improving HIV/AIDS knowledge and reducing anxiety (especially related to transmission), and lessening feelings of stigma. Each of the three child intervention sessions included behavioral skills training and a themed craft exercise; mothers attended an open discussion group while the children attended their sessions. Study participants were 37 child-mother pairs. The study design was a randomized two-group pretest-posttest experimental design. The intervention sessions were audiotaped for transcription. Results showed significant decreases in anxiety and worry for children in the intervention group, and increases in happiness and knowledge regarding HIV/AIDS transmission. Intervention group mothers reported greater social support. Qualitative findings for the intervention group children and mothers also support these findings. Early intervention reduces child stress, and may affect longer-term outcomes.

Parenting Deficits of Mothers Living with HIV/AIDS who have Young Children.

The purpose of this study was to examine a model of the relationships between parenting deficits and skills, along with child outcomes, in a sample of mothers living with HIV (MLH) and their 6 to 14 year old children. Sixty-two MLH (61% Latina, 26% black, 3% white, & 10% multiracial) and their well children (age 6 - 14) were recruited from the greater Los Angeles, California, region to participate in an intervention (IMAGE: Improving Mothers' parenting Abilities, Growth, and Effectiveness) designed to assist MLH with parenting and self-care skills. Constructs examined included parenting deficits, parenting skills, and child outcomes. Covariance structural modeling was used for the analyses. Covariance structural modeling confirmed the hypothesized set of construct associations. As predicted, fewer parenting deficits were associated with better parenting skills, which, in turn, were associated with better child outcomes. This study delineated further the parenting issues with which MLH struggle, providing information on the interventions needed for this population. MLH who have little confidence they can enact parenting skills and limited knowledge of basic parenting practices appear to be less likely to provide family routines consistently, monitor their children, or to engender family cohesion or a close parent-child relationship. Such parenting skills were found to be associated with child functioning.