Increased Phospho-AKT in Blood Cells from LRRK2 G2019S Mutation Carriers.

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether  differential phosphorylation states of blood markers can identify patients with LRRK2 Parkinson's disease (PD). We assessed phospho(P)-Ser-935-LRRK2 and P-Ser-473-AKT levels in peripheral blood cells from patients with G2019S LRRK2-associated PD (L2PD, n = 31), G2019S LRRK2 non-manifesting carriers (L2NMC, n = 26), idiopathic PD (iPD, n = 25), and controls (n = 40, total n = 122). We found no differences at P-Ser-935-LRRK2 between groups but detected a specific increase of P-Ser-473-AKT levels in all G2019S carriers, either L2PD or L2NMC, absent in iPD. Although insensitive to LRRK2 inhibition, our study identifies P-Ser-473-AKT as an endogenous candidate biomarker for peripheral inflammation in G2019S carriers using accessible blood cells. ANN NEUROL 2022;92:888-894.

Epigenetic repression of Wnt receptors in AD: a role for Sirtuin2-induced H4K16ac deacetylation of Frizzled1 and Frizzled7 promoters.

Growing evidence supports a role for deficient Wnt signalling in Alzheimer's disease (AD). First, the Wnt antagonist DKK1 is elevated in AD brains and is required for amyloid-ß-induced synapse loss. Second, LRP6 Wnt co-receptor is required for synapse integrity and three variants of this receptor are linked to late-onset AD. However, the expression/role of other Wnt signalling components remain poorly explored in AD. Wnt receptors Frizzled1 (Fzd1), Fzd5, Fzd7 and Fzd9 are of interest due to their role in synapse formation/plasticity. Our analyses showed reduced FZD1 and FZD7 mRNA levels in the hippocampus of human early AD stages and in the hAPPNLGF/NLGF mouse model. This transcriptional downregulation was accompanied by reduced levels of the pro-transcriptional histone mark H4K16ac and a concomitant increase of its deacetylase Sirt2 at Fzd1 and Fzd7 promoters in AD. In vitro and in vivo inhibition of Sirt2 rescued Fzd1 and Fzd7 mRNA expression and H4K16ac levels at their promoters. In addition, we showed that Sirt2 recruitment to Fzd1 and Fzd7 promoters is dependent on FoxO1 activity in AD, thus acting as a co-repressor. Finally, we found reduced levels of SIRT2 inhibitory phosphorylation in nuclear samples from human early AD stages with a concomitant increase in the SIRT2 phosphatase PP2C. This results in hyperactive nuclear Sirt2 and favours Fzd1 and Fzd7 repression in AD. Collectively, our findings define a novel role for nuclear hyperactivated SIRT2 in repressing Fzd1 and Fzd7 expression via H4K16ac deacetylation in AD. We propose SIRT2 as an attractive target to ameliorate AD pathology.

SNCA and mTOR Pathway Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms Interact to Modulate the Age at Onset of Parkinson's Disease.

BACKGROUND: Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the α-synuclein (SNCA) gene are associated with differential risk and age at onset (AAO) of both idiopathic and Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2)-associated Parkinson's disease (PD). Yet potential combinatory or synergistic effects among several modulatory SNPs for PD risk or AAO remain largely underexplored. OBJECTIVES: The mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway is functionally impaired in PD. Here we explored whether SNPs in the mTOR pathway, alone or by epistatic interaction with known susceptibility factors, can modulate PD risk and AAO. METHODS: Based on functional relevance, we selected a total of 64 SNPs mapping to a total of 57 genes from the mTOR pathway and genotyped a discovery series cohort encompassing 898 PD patients and 921 controls. As a replication series, we screened 4170 PD and 3014 controls available from the International Parkinson's Disease Genomics Consortium. RESULTS: In the discovery series cohort, we found a 4-loci interaction involving STK11 rs8111699, FCHSD1 rs456998, GSK3B rs1732170, and SNCA rs356219, which was associated with an increased risk of PD (odds ratio = 2.59, P < .001). In addition, we also found a 3-loci epistatic combination of RPTOR rs11868112 and RPS6KA2 rs6456121 with SNCA rs356219, which was associated (odds ratio = 2.89; P < .0001) with differential AAO. The latter was further validated (odds ratio = 1.56; P = 0.046-0.047) in the International Parkinson's Disease Genomics Consortium cohort. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that genetic variability in the mTOR pathway contributes to SNCA effects in a nonlinear epistatic manner to modulate differential AAO in PD, unraveling the contribution of this cascade in the pathogenesis of the disease. © 2019 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Chelerythrine promotes Ca2+-dependent calpain activation in neuronal cells in a PKC-independent manner.

BACKGROUND: Chelerythrine is widely used as a broad range protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor, but there is controversy about its inhibitory effect. Moreover, it has been shown to exert PKC-independent effects on non-neuronal cells. METHODS: In this study we investigated possible off-target effects of chelerythrine on cultured cortical rodent neurons and a neuronal cell line. RESULTS: We found that 10µM chelerythrine, a commonly used concentration in neuronal cultures, reduces PKC and cAMP-dependent protein kinase substrates phosphorylation in mouse cultured cortical neurons, but not in rat primary cortical neurons or in a striatal cell line. Furthermore, we found that incubation with chelerythrine increases pERK1/2 levels in all models studied. Moreover, our results show that chelerythrine promotes calpain activation as assessed by the cleavage of spectrin, striatal-enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase and calcineurin A. Remarkably, chelerythrine induces a concentration-dependent increase in intracellular Ca2+ levels that mediates calpain activation. In addition, we found that chelerythrine induces ERK1/2- and calpain-independent caspase-3 activation that can be prevented by the Ca2+ chelator BAPTA-AM. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first report showing that chelerythrine promotes Ca2+-dependent calpain activation in neuronal cells, which has consequences for the interpretation of studies using this compound. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: Chelerythrine is still marketed as a specific PKC inhibitor and extensively used in signal transduction studies. We believe that the described off-target effects should preclude its use as a PKC inhibitor in future works.

Downregulation of Dickkopf-3, a Wnt antagonist elevated in Alzheimer's disease, restores synapse integrity and memory in a disease mouse model.

Increasing evidence supports a role for deficient Wnt signaling in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Studies reveal that the secreted Wnt antagonist Dickkopf-3 (DKK3) colocalizes to amyloid plaques in AD patients. Here, we investigate the contribution of DKK3 to synapse integrity in healthy and AD brains. Our findings show that DKK3 expression is upregulated in the brains of AD subjects and that DKK3 protein levels increase at early stages in the disease. In hAPP-J20 and hAPPNL-G-F/NL-G-F mouse AD models, extracellular DKK3 levels are increased and DKK3 accumulates at dystrophic neuronal processes around plaques. Functionally, DKK3 triggers the loss of excitatory synapses through blockade of the Wnt/GSK3ß signaling with a concomitant increase in inhibitory synapses via activation of the Wnt/JNK pathway. In contrast, DKK3 knockdown restores synapse number and memory in hAPP-J20 mice. Collectively, our findings identify DKK3 as a novel driver of synaptic defects and memory impairment in AD.

Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of dementia worldwide. The cognitive decline typically observed in this condition is associated with the weakening and eventually the loss of synapses, the structures that allow neurons to communicate. Increasing evidence points to this deterioration being linked to deficiency in the Wnt signalling pathway, a cascade of molecular events crucial for brain function and development. The DKK protein family helps to tightly regulate the Wnt pathway by dampening its activity. Previous work suggests that DKK proteins could also be connected to Alzheimer's disease. For example, an elevated amount of DKK1 leads to synapse and memory defects in mice, while brain production of DKK1 is increased in individuals with late Alzheimer's. More recent studies show high levels of another DKK protein, DKK3, in Alzheimer's patients. This protein is also present in the harmful amyloid-ß aggregates, named 'plaques', that typically form in the brain in this condition. Despite these findings, how DKK3 participates in synaptic health remains unclear. To address this question, Martin-Flores, Podpolny et al. tracked DKK3 levels in the brains of Alzheimer's patients, revealing that they increase early in the disease. Additional experiments in Alzheimer's mouse models suggested that DKK3 secretion rise before amyloid-ß plaques form, with the protein then accumulating in abnormal neuronal structures present in the surroundings of these toxic deposits. Martin-Flores, Podpolny et al. then examined the impact of DKK3 on the Wnt pathway, and ultimately, on the balance between synapses that control neuronal activity. These experiments showed that elevated DKK3 levels are linked to a loss of synapses which are excitatory, with a concomitant increase in those that are inhibitory. Crucially, reducing DKK3 levels in a mouse model of Alzheimer's restored this synaptic balance and improved memory, highlighting DKK3 as a potential driver of cognitive impairment. Overall, these findings help to refine our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that contribute to synaptic impairment in Alzheimer's disease. They may also be relevant for researchers studying other conditions that involve aberrant activity of the Wnt pathway, such as cancer.

A genetic variant of the Wnt receptor LRP6 accelerates synapse degeneration during aging and in Alzheimer's disease.

Synapse loss strongly correlates with cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease (AD), but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Deficient Wnt signaling contributes to synapse dysfunction and loss in AD. Consistently, a variant of the LRP6 receptor, (LRP6-Val), with reduced Wnt signaling, is linked to late-onset AD. However, the impact of LRP6-Val on the healthy and AD brain has not been examined. Knock-in mice, generated by gene editing, carrying this Lrp6 variant develop normally. However, neurons from Lrp6-val mice do not respond to Wnt7a, a ligand that promotes synaptic assembly through the Frizzled-5 receptor. Wnt7a stimulates the formation of the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6)-Frizzled-5 complex but not if LRP6-Val is present. Lrp6-val mice exhibit structural and functional synaptic defects that become pronounced with age. Lrp6-val mice present exacerbated synapse loss around plaques when crossed to the NL-G-F AD model. Our findings uncover a previously unidentified role for Lrp6-val in synapse vulnerability during aging and AD.

Neuron-derived extracellular vesicles contain synaptic proteins, promote spine formation, activate TrkB-mediated signalling and preserve neuronal complexity.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play an important role in intercellular communication as carriers of signalling molecules such as bioactive miRNAs, proteins and lipids. EVs are key players in the functioning of the central nervous system (CNS) by influencing synaptic events and modulating recipient neurons. However, the specific role of neuron-to-neuron communication via EVs is still not well understood. Here, we provide evidence that primary neurons uptake neuron-derived EVs in the soma, dendrites, and even in the dendritic spines, and carry synaptic proteins. Neuron-derived EVs increased spine density and promoted the phosphorylation of Akt and ribosomal protein S6 (RPS6), via TrkB-signalling, without impairing the neuronal network activity. Strikingly, EVs exerted a trophic effect on challenged nutrient-deprived neurons. Altogether, our results place EVs in the spotlight for synaptic plasticity modulation as well as a possible therapeutic tool to fight neurodegeneration.

RTP801 mediates transneuronal toxicity in culture via extracellular vesicles.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a crucial role in intercellular communication, participating in the paracrine trophic support or in the propagation of toxic molecules, including proteins. RTP801 is a stress-regulated protein, whose levels are elevated during neurodegeneration and induce neuron death. However, whether RTP801 toxicity is transferred trans-neuronally via EVs remains unknown. Hence, we overexpressed or silenced RTP801 protein in cultured cortical neurons, isolated their derived EVs (RTP801-EVs or shRTP801-EVs, respectively), and characterized EVs protein content by mass spectrometry (MS). RTP801-EVs toxicity was assessed by treating cultured neurons with these EVs and quantifying apoptotic neuron death and branching. We also tested shRTP801-EVs functionality in the pathologic in vitro model of 6-Hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). Expression of RTP801 increased the number of EVs released by neurons. Moreover, RTP801 led to a distinct proteomic signature of neuron-derived EVs, containing more pro-apoptotic markers. Hence, we observed that RTP801-induced toxicity was transferred to neurons via EVs, activating apoptosis and impairing neuron morphology complexity. In contrast, shRTP801-EVs were able to increase the arborization in recipient neurons. The 6-OHDA neurotoxin elevated levels of RTP801 in EVs, and 6-OHDA-derived EVs lost the mTOR/Akt signalling activation via Akt and RPS6 downstream effectors. Interestingly, EVs derived from neurons where RTP801 was silenced prior to exposing them to 6-OHDA maintained Akt and RPS6 transactivation in recipient neurons. Taken together, these results suggest that RTP801-induced toxicity is transferred via EVs, and therefore, it could contribute to the progression of neurodegenerative diseases, in which RTP801 is involved.

RTP801/REDD1 Is Involved in Neuroinflammation and Modulates Cognitive Dysfunction in Huntington's Disease.

RTP801/REDD1 is a stress-regulated protein whose levels are increased in several neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and Huntington's diseases (HD). RTP801 downregulation ameliorates behavioral abnormalities in several mouse models of these disorders. In HD, RTP801 mediates mutant huntingtin (mhtt) toxicity in in vitro models and its levels are increased in human iPSCs, human postmortem putamen samples, and in striatal synaptosomes from mouse models of the disease. Here, we investigated the role of RTP801 in the hippocampal pathophysiology of HD. We found that RTP801 levels are increased in the hippocampus of HD patients in correlation with gliosis markers. Although RTP801 expression is not altered in the hippocampus of the R6/1 mouse model of HD, neuronal RTP801 silencing in the dorsal hippocampus with shRNA containing AAV particles ameliorates cognitive alterations. This recovery is associated with a partial rescue of synaptic markers and with a reduction in inflammatory events, especially microgliosis. Altogether, our results indicate that RTP801 could be a marker of hippocampal neuroinflammation in HD patients and a promising therapeutic target of the disease.

RTP801 regulates motor cortex synaptic transmission and learning.

BACKGROUND: RTP801/REDD1 is a stress-regulated protein whose upregulation is necessary and sufficient to trigger neuronal death in in vitro and in vivo models of Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases and is up regulated in compromised neurons in human postmortem brains of both neurodegenerative disorders. Indeed, in both Parkinson's and Huntington's disease mouse models, RTP801 knockdown alleviates motor-learning deficits. RESULTS: We investigated the physiological role of RTP801 in neuronal plasticity and we found RTP801 in rat, mouse and human synapses. The absence of RTP801 enhanced excitatory synaptic transmission in both neuronal cultures and brain slices from RTP801 knock-out (KO) mice. Indeed, RTP801 KO mice showed improved motor learning, which correlated with lower spine density but increased basal filopodia and mushroom spines in the motor cortex layer V. This paralleled with higher levels of synaptosomal GluA1 and TrkB receptors in homogenates derived from KO mice motor cortex, proteins that are associated with synaptic strengthening. CONCLUSIONS: Altogether, these results indicate that RTP801 has an important role modulating neuronal plasticity and motor learning. They will help to understand its role in neurodegenerative disorders where RTP801 levels are detrimentally upregulated.

Synaptic RTP801 contributes to motor-learning dysfunction in Huntington's disease.

RTP801/REDD1 is a stress-responsive protein that mediates mutant huntingtin (mhtt) toxicity in cellular models and is up regulated in Huntington's disease (HD) patients' putamen. Here, we investigated whether RTP801 is involved in motor impairment in HD by affecting striatal synaptic plasticity. To explore this hypothesis, ectopic mhtt was over expressed in cultured rat primary neurons. Moreover, the protein levels of RTP801 were assessed in homogenates and crude synaptic fractions from human postmortem HD brains and mouse models of HD. Finally, striatal RTP801 expression was knocked down with adeno-associated viral particles containing a shRNA in the R6/1 mouse model of HD and motor learning was then tested. Ectopic mhtt elevated RTP801 in synapses of cultured neurons. RTP801 was also up regulated in striatal synapses from HD patients and mouse models. Knocking down RTP801 in the R6/1 mouse striatum prevented motor-learning impairment. RTP801 silencing normalized the Ser473 Akt hyperphosphorylation by downregulating Rictor and it induced synaptic elevation of calcium permeable GluA1 subunit and TrkB receptor levels, suggesting an enhancement in synaptic plasticity. These results indicate that mhtt-induced RTP801 mediates motor dysfunction in a HD murine model, revealing a potential role in the human disease. These findings open a new therapeutic framework focused on the RTP801/Akt/mTOR axis.

Wnt Signaling Through Nitric Oxide Synthase Promotes the Formation of Multi-Innervated Spines.

Structural plasticity of synapses correlates with changes in synaptic strength. Dynamic modifications in dendritic spine number and size are crucial for long-term potentiation (LTP), the cellular correlate of learning and memory. Recent studies have suggested the generation of multi-innervated spines (MIS), in the form of several excitatory presynaptic inputs onto one spine, are crucial for hippocampal memory storage. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying MIS formation and their contribution to LTP. Using 3D enhanced resolution confocal images, we examined the contribution of Wnt synaptic modulators in MIS formation in the context of LTP. We show that blockage of endogenous Wnts with specific Wnt antagonists supresses the formation of MIS upon chemical LTP induction in cultured hippocampal neurons. Gain- and loss-of-function studies demonstrate that Wnt7a signaling promotes MIS formation through the postsynaptic Wnt scaffold protein Disheveled 1 (Dvl1) by stimulating neuronal nitric oxide (NO) synthase (nNOS). Subsequently, NO activates soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) to increase MIS formation. Consistently, we observed an enhanced frequency and amplitude of excitatory postsynaptic currents. Collectively, our findings identify a unique role for Wnt secreted proteins through nNOS/NO/sGC signaling to modulate MIS formation during LTP.

MTOR Pathway-Based Discovery of Genetic Susceptibility to L-DOPA-Induced Dyskinesia in Parkinson's Disease Patients.

Dyskinesia induced by L-DOPA administration (LID) is one of the most invalidating adverse effects of the gold standard treatment restoring dopamine transmission in Parkinson's disease (PD). However, LID manifestation in parkinsonian patients is variable and heterogeneous. Here, we performed a candidate genetic pathway analysis of the mTOR signaling cascade to elucidate a potential genetic contribution to LID susceptibility, since mTOR inhibition ameliorates LID in PD animal models. We screened 64 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) mapping to 57 genes of the mTOR pathway in a retrospective cohort of 401 PD cases treated with L-DOPA (70 PD with moderate/severe LID and 331 with no/mild LID). We performed classic allelic, genotypic, and epistatic analyses to evaluate the association of individual or combinations of SNPs with LID onset and with LID severity after initiation of L-DOPA treatment. As for the time to LID onset, we found significant associations with SNP rs1043098 in the EIF4EBP2 gene and also with an epistatic interaction involving EIF4EBP2 rs1043098, RICTOR rs2043112, and PRKCA rs4790904. For LID severity, we found significant association with HRAS rs12628 and PRKN rs1801582 and also with a four-loci epistatic combination involving RPS6KB1 rs1292034, HRAS rs12628, RPS6KA2 rs6456121, and FCHSD1 rs456998. These findings indicate that the mTOR pathway contributes genetically to LID susceptibility. Our study could help to identify the most susceptible PD patients to L-DOPA in order to prevent the appearance of early and/or severe LID in a future. This information could also be used to stratify PD patients in clinical trials in a more accurate way.

Loss of NEDD4 contributes to RTP801 elevation and neuron toxicity: implications for Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a disorder characterized by the degeneration of certain neuronal populations in the central and peripheral nervous system. One of the hallmarks of the disease is the toxic accumulation of proteins within susceptible neurons due to major impairment in the degradation/clearance protein systems.RTP801 is a pro-apoptotic protein that is sufficient and necessary to induce neuronal death in cellular and animal models of PD. RTP801 is also upregulated in sporadic and parkin mutant PD brains. Here, we report the role of NEDD4, an E3 ligase involved in α-synuclein degradation and PD pathogenesis, in the regulation of RTP801 protein levels and toxicity. NEDD4 polyubiquitinates RTP801 in a cell-free system and in cellular cultures, and they interact physically. NEDD4 conjugates K63-ubiquitin chains to RTP801 and targets it for degradation. NEDD4 regulates RTP801 protein levels in both cultured cells and in the brain tissue. NEDD4 levels are diminished in nigral neurons from human PD brains. Interestingly, neurotoxin 6-OHDA decreases dramatically NEDD4 protein expression but elevates RTP801 protein levels. Moreover, NEDD4 protects neuronal PC12 cells from both 6-OHDA and RTP801-induced toxicity. In primary cortical neurons, NEDD4 knockdown toxicity is mediated by RTP801 since the double knockdown of RTP801 and NEDD4 abrogates the loss of phospho Ser473-Akt and the appearance of caspase-cleaved spectrin fragments.Thus, NEDD4 ligase regulates RTP801 and is sensitive to PD-associated oxidative stress. This suggests that NEDD4 loss of function in PD could contribute importantly into neuronal death by elevating RTP801.

RTP801 Is Involved in Mutant Huntingtin-Induced Cell Death.

RTP801 expression is induced by cellular stress and has a pro-apoptotic function in non-proliferating differentiated cells such as neurons. In several neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease, elevated levels of RTP801 have been observed, which suggests a role for RTP801 in neuronal death. Neuronal death is also a pathological hallmark in Huntington's disease (HD), an inherited neurodegenerative disorder caused by a CAG repeat expansion in the huntingtin gene. Currently, the exact mechanisms underlying mutant huntingtin (mhtt)-induced toxicity are still unclear. Here, we investigated whether RTP801 is involved in (mhtt)-induced cell death. Ectopic exon-1 mhtt elevated RTP801 mRNA and protein levels in nerve growth factor (NGF)-differentiated PC12 cells and in rat primary cortical neurons. In neuronal PC12 cells, mhtt also contributed to RTP801 protein elevation by reducing its proteasomal degradation rate, in addition to promoting RTP801 gene expression. Interestingly, silencing RTP801 expression with short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) blocked mhtt-induced cell death in NGF-differentiated PC12 cells. However, RTP801 protein levels were not altered in the striatum of Hdh(Q7/Q111) and R6/1 mice, two HD models that display motor deficits but not neuronal death. Importantly, RTP801 protein levels were elevated in both neural telencephalic progenitors differentiated from HD patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells and in the putamen and cerebellum of human HD postmortem brains. Taken together, our results suggest that RTP801 is a novel downstream effector of mhtt-induced toxicity and that it may be relevant to the human disease.

RTP801/REDD1: a stress coping regulator that turns into a troublemaker in neurodegenerative disorders.

Mechanistic target of Rapamycin (mTOR) pathway regulates essential processes directed to preserve cellular homeostasis, such as cell growth, proliferation, survival, protein synthesis and autophagy. Importantly, mTOR pathway deregulation has been related to many diseases. Indeed, it has become a hallmark in neurodegenerative disorders, since a fine-tuned regulation of mTOR activities is crucial for neuron function and survival. RTP801/REDD1/Dig2 has become one of the most puzzling regulators of mTOR. Although the mechanism is not completely understood, RTP801 inactivates mTOR and Akt via the tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC1/TSC2) in many cellular contexts. Intriguingly, RTP801 protects dividing cells from hypoxia or H2O2-induced apoptosis, while it sensitizes differentiated cells to stress. Based on experimental models of Parkinson's disease (PD), it has been proposed that at early stages of the disease, stress-induced RTP801 upregulation contributes to mTOR repression, in an attempt to maintain cell function and viability. However, if RTP801 elevation is sustained, it leads to neuron cell death by a sequential inhibition of mTOR and Akt. Here, we will review RTP801 deregulation of mTOR in a context of PD and other neurodegenerative disorders.