Identifying predictors of translocation success in rare plant species.

The fundamental goal of a rare plant translocation is to create self-sustaining populations with the evolutionary resilience to persist in the long term. Yet, most plant translocation syntheses focus on a few factors influencing short-term benchmarks of success (e.g., survival and reproduction). Short-term benchmarks can be misleading when trying to infer future growth and viability because the factors that promote establishment may differ from those required for long-term persistence. We assembled a large (n = 275) and broadly representative data set of well-documented and monitored (7.9 years on average) at-risk plant translocations to identify the most important site attributes, management techniques, and species' traits for six life-cycle benchmarks and population metrics of translocation success. We used the random forest algorithm to quantify the relative importance of 29 predictor variables for each metric of success. Drivers of translocation outcomes varied across time frames and success metrics. Management techniques had the greatest relative influence on the attainment of life-cycle benchmarks and short-term population trends, whereas site attributes and species' traits were more important for population persistence and long-term trends. Specifically, large founder sizes increased the potential for reproduction and recruitment into the next generation, whereas declining habitat quality and the outplanting of species with low seed production led to increased extinction risks and a reduction in potential reproductive output in the long-term, respectively. We also detected novel interactions between some of the most important drivers, such as an increased probability of next-generation recruitment in species with greater seed production rates, but only when coupled with large founder sizes. Because most significant barriers to plant translocation success can be overcome by improving techniques or resolving site-level issues through early intervention and management, we suggest that by combining long-term monitoring with adaptive management, translocation programs can enhance the prospects of achieving long-term success.

Identificación de pronosticadores del éxito de reubicación en especies raras de plantas Resumen El objetivo fundamental de la reubicación de plantas raras es la creación de poblaciones autosuficientes con resiliencia evolutiva que persistan a la larga. De todas maneras, la mayoría de las síntesis de estas reubicaciones se enfocan en unos cuantos factores que influyen sobre los parámetros a corto plazo del éxito (supervivencia y reproducción). Los parámetros a corto plazo pueden ser engañosos si se intenta inferir el crecimiento y la viabilidad en el futuro ya que los factores que promueven el establecimiento pueden diferir de aquellos requeridos para la persistencia a largo plazo. Ensamblamos un conjunto grande de datos representativos en general (n = 275) de las reubicaciones de plantas en riesgo bien documentadas y monitoreadas (7.9 años en promedio) para identificar los atributos de sitio más importantes, las técnicas de manejo y los rasgos de las especies para seis parámetros de ciclos de vida y medidas poblacionales del éxito de reubicación. Usamos el algoritmo de bosque aleatorio para cuantificar la importancia relativa de las 29 variables de pronosticadores para cada medida del éxito. Los factores en los resultados de las reubicaciones variaron con los marcos temporales y las medidas de éxito. Las técnicas de manejo tuvieron la mayor influencia relativa sobre la obtención de parámetros de ciclos de vida y tendencias poblacionales a corto plazo, mientras que los atributos de sitio y los rasgos de la especie fueron más importantes para la persistencia poblacional y las tendencias a largo plazo. En específico, las grandes cantidades de fundadores incrementaron el potencial de reproducción y reclutamiento de la siguiente generación, mientras que la declinación de la calidad del hábitat incrementó el riesgo de extinción y el trasplante de especies con baja producción de semillas redujo el rendimiento del potencial reproductivo a la larga. También detectamos interacciones novedosas entre algunos de los factores más importantes, como el aumento en la probabilidad del reclutamiento en la siguiente generación en especies con tasas mayores de producción de semillas, pero sólo cuando se emparejó con grandes cantidades de fundadores. Ya que las barreras más significativas para el éxito de la reubicación de plantas pueden superarse al mejorar las técnicas o resolver los temas a nivel de sitio por medio de un manejo y una intervención temprana, sugerimos que con la combinación del monitoreo a largo plazo con el manejo adaptativo los programas de reubicación pueden aumentar el prospecto de lograr el éxito a largo plazo.

What kills the virtually immortal palms of the Florida scrub?

PREMISE: Life span varies greatly across plants, with some species being capable of extreme longevity. Yet even long-lived individuals are susceptible to climatic events, fire, and other challenges. We examined rare mortality events and their causes in two long-lived palmettos over four decades. METHODS: We monitored the survival of the clonal Serenoa repens and non-clonal, Florida-endemic Sabal etonia from 1981 to 2022 in four habitats along an elevational gradient within the globally imperiled Florida scrub ecosystem. We considered several challenges to palmetto survival, including extreme fires, shading due to lack of fire, droughts, periods of high precipitation, and possible pathogens. RESULTS: Survival of palmettos was remarkably high, and mortality was infrequent (Serenoa: cumulative, 5.7%; annualized, 0%-0.68%; Sabal: cumulative, 3.5%; annualized, 0%-0.43%). Mortality was highest in higher-elevation habitats with greater soil drainage, and smaller palmettos were more likely to die. When subjected to extreme fire, Serenoa suffered greater mortality than Sabal. Mortality in long-unburned habitats with increased shading rivaled that which occurred with extreme fire. There was no evidence of mortality due to lethal bronzing palm disease. CONCLUSIONS: Both palmettos had exceptionally low mortality rates, which, coupled with earlier work showing slow rates of transition from seedling to adult and remarkable adult longevity, suggest notably low rates of population turnover. Observed mortality in long-unburned habitats suggests the importance of fire-management planning with prescription burning. Lengthy age to reproduction and/or dependency on clonal propagation limits migration or genetic adaptation to altered conditions caused by climate change.

Microbiome-mediated response to pulse fire disturbance outweighs the effects of fire legacy on plant performance.

Fire plays a major role in structuring plant communities across the globe. Interactions with soil microbes impact plant fitness, scaling up to influence plant populations and distributions. Here we present the first factorial manipulation of both fire and soil microbiome presence to investigate their interactive effects on plant performance across a suite of plant species with varying life history traits. We conducted fully factorial experiments on 11 species from the Florida scrub ecosystem to test plant performance responses to soils with varying fire histories (36 soil sources), the presence/absence of a microbiome, and exposure to an experimental burn. Results revealed interactive 'pulse' effects between fire and the soil microbiome on plant performance. On average, post-fire soil microbiomes strongly reduced plant productivity compared to unburned or sterilized soils. Interestingly, longer-term fire 'legacy' effects had minor impacts on plant performance and were unrelated to soil microbiomes. While pulse fire effects on plant-microbiome interactions are short-term, they could have long-term consequences for plant communities by establishing differential microbiome-mediated priority effects during post-disturbance succession. The prominence of pulse fire effects on plant-microbe interactions has even greater import due to expected increases in fire disturbances resulting from anthropogenic climate change.

Diversity of ageing across the tree of life.

Evolution drives, and is driven by, demography. A genotype moulds its phenotype's age patterns of mortality and fertility in an environment; these two patterns in turn determine the genotype's fitness in that environment. Hence, to understand the evolution of ageing, age patterns of mortality and reproduction need to be compared for species across the tree of life. However, few studies have done so and only for a limited range of taxa. Here we contrast standardized patterns over age for 11 mammals, 12 other vertebrates, 10 invertebrates, 12 vascular plants and a green alga. Although it has been predicted that evolution should inevitably lead to increasing mortality and declining fertility with age after maturity, there is great variation among these species, including increasing, constant, decreasing, humped and bowed trajectories for both long- and short-lived species. This diversity challenges theoreticians to develop broader perspectives on the evolution of ageing and empiricists to study the demography of more species.

Soil Microbiomes Underlie Population Persistence of an Endangered Plant Species.

Microbiomes can dramatically alter individual plant performance, yet how these effects influence higher-order processes is not well resolved. In particular, little is known about how microbiome effects on individual plants alter plant population dynamics, a question critical to imperiled species conservation. Here we integrate bioassays, multidecadal demographic data, and integral projection modeling to determine how the presence of the natural soil microbiome underlies plant population dynamics. Simulations indicated that the presence of soil microbiomes boosted population growth rates (λ) of the endangered Hypericum cumulicola by 13% on average, the difference between population growth versus decline in 76% of patches. The greatest benefit (47% increase in λ) occurred in low-nutrient, high-elevation habitats, suggesting that the soil microbiome may help expand H. cumulicola's distribution to include these stressful habitats. Our results demonstrate that soil microbiomes can significantly affect plant population growth and persistence and support the incorporation of soil microbiomes into conservation planning.

Drivers of vegetative dormancy across herbaceous perennial plant species.

Vegetative dormancy, that is the temporary absence of aboveground growth for ≥ 1 year, is paradoxical, because plants cannot photosynthesise or flower during dormant periods. We test ecological and evolutionary hypotheses for its widespread persistence. We show that dormancy has evolved numerous times. Most species displaying dormancy exhibit life-history costs of sprouting, and of dormancy. Short-lived and mycoheterotrophic species have higher proportions of dormant plants than long-lived species and species with other nutritional modes. Foliage loss is associated with higher future dormancy levels, suggesting that carbon limitation promotes dormancy. Maximum dormancy duration is shorter under higher precipitation and at higher latitudes, the latter suggesting an important role for competition or herbivory. Study length affects estimates of some demographic parameters. Our results identify life historical and environmental drivers of dormancy. We also highlight the evolutionary importance of the little understood costs of sprouting and growth, latitudinal stress gradients and mixed nutritional modes.

Dynamics of gaps, vegetation, and plant species with and without fire.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Areas lacking dominant plants, or gaps, can support high diversity and specialist species. Previous chronosequence research in Florida rosemary scrub showed indistinct gap area patterns with fire and the dependence of certain species on gaps. We hypothesized that fire and gap size would affect extinction, colonization, diversity, and vegetation composition. METHODS: In 2011-12, we revisited gaps first sampled in 2003, recording vascular plant and ground lichen occurrence by species, gap area, and burn history. We analyzed gap, vegetation, and species dynamics using linear mixed models, with Florida rosemary scrub patch as a random factor. KEY RESULTS: Gap areas declined quickly during the first 10 yr postfire and then stabilized. Between 2003 and 2011-12, unburned gaps usually remained extant or split, whereas burned gaps usually merged. Unburned gaps tended to shrink, whereas burned gaps became larger. Species richness was positively related to gap area, fire, and their interaction. Over time, richness declined in unburned gaps and increased in burned gaps. Local extinction and colonization of individual species were related to fire between 2003 and 2011-12. In burned gaps, ground lichens disappeared, but many herbaceous species, including those killed by fire, increased occupancy. Colonization of most species was favored by burning, large gaps, or both. CONCLUSIONS: In Florida rosemary scrub, fire and increasing gap size increased species richness and many individual species occurrences, reduced local extinctions, and increased colonizations. Therefore, land management activities that encourage the creation and maintenance of large gaps will promote biodiversity in this system.

Ability of matrix models to explain the past and predict the future of plant populations.

Uncertainty associated with ecological forecasts has long been recognized, but forecast accuracy is rarely quantified. We evaluated how well data on 82 populations of 20 species of plants spanning 3 continents explained and predicted plant population dynamics. We parameterized stage-based matrix models with demographic data from individually marked plants and determined how well these models forecast population sizes observed at least 5 years into the future. Simple demographic models forecasted population dynamics poorly; only 40% of observed population sizes fell within our forecasts' 95% confidence limits. However, these models explained population dynamics during the years in which data were collected; observed changes in population size during the data-collection period were strongly positively correlated with population growth rate. Thus, these models are at least a sound way to quantify population status. Poor forecasts were not associated with the number of individual plants or years of data. We tested whether vital rates were density dependent and found both positive and negative density dependence. However, density dependence was not associated with forecast error. Forecast error was significantly associated with environmental differences between the data collection and forecast periods. To forecast population fates, more detailed models, such as those that project how environments are likely to change and how these changes will affect population dynamics, may be needed. Such detailed models are not always feasible. Thus, it may be wiser to make risk-averse decisions than to expect precise forecasts from models.

Heterogeneous landscape promotes distinct microbial communities in an imperiled scrub ecosystem.

Habitat heterogeneity is a key driver of biodiversity of macroorganisms, yet how heterogeneity structures belowground microbial communities is not well understood. Importantly, belowground microbial communities may respond to any number of abiotic, biotic, and spatial drivers found in heterogeneous environments. Here, we examine potential drivers of prokaryotic and fungal communities in soils across the heterogenous landscape of the imperiled Florida scrub, a pyrogenic ecosystem where slight differences in elevation lead to large changes in water and nutrient availability and vegetation composition. We employ a comprehensive, large-scale sampling design to characterize the communities of prokaryotes and fungi associated with three habitat types and two soil depths (crust and subterranean) to evaluate (i) differences in microbial communities across these heterogeneous habitats, (ii) the relative roles of abiotic, biotic, and spatial drivers in shaping community structure, and (iii) the distribution of fungal guilds across these habitats. We sequenced soils from 40 complete replicates of habitat × soil depth combinations and sequenced the prokaryotic 16S and fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions using Illumina MiSeq. Habitat heterogeneity generated distinct communities of soil prokaryotes and fungi. Spatial distance played a role in structuring crust communities, whereas subterranean microbial communities were primarily structured by the shrub community, whose roots they presumably interacted with. This result helps to explain the unexpected transition we observed between arbuscular mycorrhiza-dominated soils at low-elevation habitats to ectomycorrhiza-dominated soils at high-elevation habitats. Our results challenge previous notions of environmental determinism of microbial communities and generate new hypotheses regarding symbiotic relationships across heterogeneous environments.

Metacommunity dynamics over 16 years in a pyrogenic shrubland.

Metacommunity theory allows predictions about the dynamics of potentially interacting species' assemblages that are linked by dispersal, but strong empirical tests of the theory are rare. We analyzed the metacommunity dynamics of Florida rosemary scrub, a patchily distributed pyrogenic community, to test predictions about turnover rates, community nestedness, and responses to patch size, arrangement, and quality. We collected occurrence data for 45 plant species from 88 rosemary scrub patches in 1989 and 2005 and used growth form, mechanism of regeneration after fire, and degree of habitat specialization to categorize species by life history. We tested whether patch size, fire history, and structural connectivity (a measure of proximity and size of surrounding patches) could be used to predict apparent extinctions and colonizations. In addition, we tested the accuracy of incidence-function models built with the patch survey data from 1989. After fire local extinction rates were higher for herbs than woody plants, higher for species that regenerated only from seed than species able to resprout, and higher for generalist than specialist species. Fewer rosemary specialists and a higher proportion of habitat generalists were extirpated on recently burned patches than on patches not burned between 1989 and 2005. Nestedness was highest for specialists among all life-history groups. Estimated model parameters from 1989 predicted the observed (1989-2005) extinction rates and the number of patches with persistent populations of individual species. These results indicate that species with different life-history strategies within the same metacommunity can have substantially different responses to patch configuration and quality. Real metacommunities may not conform to certain assumptions of simple models, but incidence-function models that consider only patch size, configuration, and quality can have significant predictive accuracy.

How do plant ecologists use matrix population models?

Matrix projection models are among the most widely used tools in plant ecology. However, the way in which plant ecologists use and interpret these models differs from the way in which they are presented in the broader academic literature. In contrast to calls from earlier reviews, most studies of plant populations are based on < 5 matrices and present simple metrics such as deterministic population growth rates. However, plant ecologists also cautioned against literal interpretation of model predictions. Although academic studies have emphasized testing quantitative model predictions, such forecasts are not the way in which plant ecologists find matrix models to be most useful. Improving forecasting ability would necessitate increased model complexity and longer studies. Therefore, in addition to longer term studies with better links to environmental drivers, priorities for research include critically evaluating relative/comparative uses of matrix models and asking how we can use many short-term studies to understand long-term population dynamics.

Environmental stress destabilizes microbial networks.

Environmental stress is increasing worldwide, yet we lack a clear picture of how stress disrupts the stability of microbial communities and the ecosystem services they provide. Here, we present the first evidence that naturally-occurring microbiomes display network properties characteristic of unstable communities when under persistent stress. By assessing changes in diversity and structure of soil microbiomes along 40 replicate stress gradients (elevation/water availability gradients) in the Florida scrub ecosystem, we show that: (1) prokaryotic and fungal diversity decline in high stress, and (2) two network properties of stable microbial communities-modularity and negative:positive cohesion-have a clear negative relationship with environmental stress, explaining 51-78% of their variation. Interestingly, pathogenic taxa/functional guilds decreased in relative abundance along the stress gradient, while oligotrophs and mutualists increased, suggesting that the shift in negative:positive cohesion could result from decreasing negative:positive biotic interactions consistent with the predictions of the Stress Gradient Hypothesis. Given the crucial role microbiomes play in ecosystem functions, our results suggest that, by limiting the compartmentalization of microbial associations and creating communities dominated by positive associations, increasing stress in the Anthropocene could destabilize microbiomes and undermine their ecosystem services.

Fine-scale spatial variation in fitness is comparable to disturbance-induced fluctuations in a fire-adapted species.

The spatial scale at which demographic performance (e.g., net reproductive output) varies can profoundly influence landscape-level population growth and persistence, and many demographically pertinent processes such as species interactions and resource acquisition vary at fine scales. We compared the magnitude of demographic variation associated with fine-scale heterogeneity (<10 m), with variation due to larger-scale (>1 ha) fluctuations associated with fire disturbance. We used a spatially explicit model within an IPM modeling framework to evaluate the demographic importance of fine-scale variation. We used a measure of expected lifetime fruit production, EF , that is assumed to be proportional to lifetime fitness. Demographic differences and their effects on EF were assessed in a population of the herbaceous perennial Hypericum cumulicola (~2,600 individuals), within a patch of Florida rosemary scrub (400 × 80 m). We compared demographic variation over fine spatial scales to demographic variation between years across 6 yr after a fire. Values of EF changed by orders of magnitude over <10 m. This variation in fitness over fine spatial scales (<10 m) is commensurate to postfire changes in fitness for this fire-adapted perennial. A life table response experiment indicated that fine-scale spatial variation in vital rates, especially survival, explains as much change in EF as demographic changes caused by time-since-fire, a key driver in this system. Our findings show that environmental changes over a few tens of meters can have ecologically meaningful implications for population growth and extinction.

Understanding how an amphicarpic species with a mixed mating system responds to fire: a population genetic approach.

Amphicarpic plants produce both above-ground and below-ground seeds. Because below-ground seeds are protected in the soil and may maintain viability when above-ground conditions are stressful, they were proposed as an adaptation to recolonize a site after disturbance. However, whether below-ground seeds are the main colonizers after a disturbance remains unknown. Our goal was to understand whether recolonization by an amphicarpic species after fire was accomplished primarily through germination of seeds produced above-ground or below-ground. We investigated Polygala lewtonii, an amphicarpic, perennial species endemic to fire-prone Florida sandhill and scrub, where fire kills plants but subsequently increases recruitment and population sizes. Polygala lewtonii produces three flower types: above-ground chasmogamous flowers and above-ground and below-ground cleistogamous flowers, with previous research demonstrating chasmogamous flowers produce a much greater proportion of seeds than cleistogamous flowers. We quantified outcrossing in seeds produced by chasmogamous flowers to determine whether it differed from the 100 % self-fertilized below-ground seeds. Approximately 25 % of seeds from chasmogamous flowers showed evidence of cross-pollination. Assuming that chasmogamous flowers produce the majority of the above-ground seeds, as was shown previously, this indicates it is possible to differentiate between germination by above-ground versus below-ground seeds in post-fire colonization. We next compared genetic diversity, admixture, inbreeding and population genetic structure pre- and post-fire. If fire promoted germination of chasmogamous seeds, heterozygosity and admixture would increase, and genetic structure and inbreeding would decrease. Instead, inbreeding and genetic structure increased and admixture decreased, suggesting that the below-ground selfed seeds (with limited dispersal ability) increased their contribution to the population after fire, possibly because fire reduced above-ground seed viability. Additionally, new alleles not found previously in range-wide analyses emerged from the seed bank post-fire. These results suggest that amphicarpy is a powerful adaptation to preserve genetic variation, maintain adaptive potential and promote rapid post-fire colonization.

Do plant-microbe interactions support the Stress Gradient Hypothesis?

The Stress Gradient Hypothesis (SGH), which predicts increasing ratios of facilitative:competitive interactions with increasing stress, has long been a guiding framework for conceptualizing plant-plant interactions. Recently, there has been a growing recognition of the roles of microbes in mitigating or exacerbating environmental stress for their plant hosts. As such, we might predict, based on the SGH, that beneficial microbial effects on plant performance should be positively associated with stress. Specifically, we hypothesized that support for the SGH would depend on the host plant's habitat specialization such that species that specialize in high stress habitats and thus likely coevolved with the resident microbes would exhibit stronger support for the SGH than non-specialist plant species. We further hypothesized that support for the SGH would vary with germination frequency, since boosting germination of low-frequency germinators is one effective means by which microbes can benefit plant species performance. Here, we explore whether plant-microbial interactions support the SGH using 12 plant species native to the Florida rosemary scrub. We conducted factorial experiments that manipulated the presence of microbes in nine soils collected along an elevational stress gradient, and recorded germination frequency and biomass. Microbes increased the germination frequency of four species, all of which had relatively low germination rates. Furthermore, we found support for the SGH in nearly one-half of the species examined, with soil microbes facilitating germination with increasing stress for 5 of the 12 species tested, and none of the species exhibiting the opposite trend. Support for the SGH was not predicted by either the plant hosts' habitat specialization or germination frequency. In contrast to germination, biomass results showed little support for the SGH, with four of 12 species refuting and one species supporting SGH predictions. Taken together, our study documents that interactions between the soil microbial community and plant species along a stress gradient can support the SGH, but emphasizes that these effects are life-history-stage dependent. This work also identifies a common mechanism (germination facilitation) by which microbes can benefit plant species in stressful habitats.

Longevity can buffer plant and animal populations against changing climatic variability.

Both means and year-to-year variances of climate variables such as temperature and precipitation are predicted to change. However, the potential impact of changing climatic variability on the fate of populations has been largely unexamined. We analyzed multiyear demographic data for 36 plant and animal species with a broad range of life histories and types of environment to ask how sensitive their long-term stochastic population growth rates are likely to be to changes in the means and standard deviations of vital rates (survival, reproduction, growth) in response to changing climate. We quantified responsiveness using elasticities of the long-term population growth rate predicted by stochastic projection matrix models. Short-lived species (insects and annual plants and algae) are predicted to be more strongly (and negatively) affected by increasing vital rate variability relative to longer-lived species (perennial plants, birds, ungulates). Taxonomic affiliation has little power to explain sensitivity to increasing variability once longevity has been taken into account. Our results highlight the potential vulnerability of short-lived species to an increasingly variable climate, but also suggest that problems associated with short-lived undesirable species (agricultural pests, disease vectors, invasive weedy plants) may be exacerbated in regions where climate variability decreases.

Patterns of chasmogamy and cleistogamy, a mixed-mating strategy in an endangered perennial.

Cleistogamy (CL) in angiosperms historically has been understudied; however, its co-occurrence with chasmogamy (CH) across many plant species suggests a fitness advantage to maintaining this mixed-mating strategy. Maintenance of mixed-mating has been attributed to reproductive assurance, resource allocation or genetic trade-offs. Our goals were to explore patterns of CH and CL, quantify reproductive contributions measured by fruit production and determine how CL is maintained in the endangered perennial Polygala lewtonii. This species exhibits CH and both above-ground cleistogamy (CL-AG) and below-ground cleistogamy (CL-BG). In monthly censuses from 2008 to 2012, we documented flowering patterns by counting CH flowering stems, CL-AG fruits and CL-BG rhizomes per plant. Monitoring of buds on CH flowering stems in 2004 provided an estimate of CH fruits per plant. Plant excavations in 2005 of CL-BG rhizomes provided an estimate of CL-BG fruits per plant. Floral morphs were temporally separated with CH flowers observed from January to May and CL flowers from June to February. Overall, 17.5 % of plants flowered; most plants expressed CH first in spring months (63.4 %) and the rest initiated CL-AG in fall months. Reproductive output was dominated by CH (median 26 fruits) compared to combined CL (median 3.5 fruits). Annual reproductive effort of CL-AG was positively correlated with plant age while CH had no relation. Our research shows CH as the dominant form of reproductive effort with most individuals expressing CH and through greater reproductive contributions. CL appears limited by plant size or resources based on the positive relationship with plant age. CL dependency on resource availability is common in other species found in dry or low-quality habitats; however, CL contributions in this species are comparatively low. This raises more questions related to energy requirements of both floral morphs, how this affects the production of viable progeny and why CL persists.

Population Dynamics and Life History of Euphorbia rosescens, a Perennial Herb Endemic to Florida Scrub.

Euphorbia rosescens is a recently described plant that is narrowly endemic to the Lake Wales Ridge. Little is known of the ecology or life history of this diminutive, deeply rooted polygamodioecious perennial. We studied 13 subpopulations of this species from 2004-2012 from five habitats, sampling monthly during its growing season. Subpopulations were stable year-to-year with annual survivals > 90%, but with considerable within-year dynamics, peaking in density in April and dying back in the fall and winter. Stem densities did not vary among subpopulations, habitats, or by subpopulation gender. Annual plant dormancy was common and decreased subsequent survival. Belowground biomass averaged almost 50 times higher than aboveground biomass. Subpopulations either consisted of entirely female individuals or a mixture of male and functionally andromonoecious individuals and these subpopulation genders remained stable across years. Overall, flowering has been dominated by female plants. Plants produced modest numbers of inflorescences (cyathia), and fruit production was very low. Although most plants survived fire by resprouting, fire decreased survival and had a short-term positive effect on floral production. Lack of fecundity and recruitment are concerns for this state-endangered species, but more information is needed on its breeding system and clonality to make specific management recommendations.

Adaptive introductions: How multiple experiments and comparisons to wild populations provide insights into requirements for long-term introduction success of an endangered shrub.

Recovery of an imperiled plant species may require augmentation of existing populations or creation of new ones. Hundreds of such projects have been conducted over the last few decades, but there is a bias in the literature favoring successes over failures. In this paper, we evaluate a series of introductions that experimentally manipulated microhabitat and fire in an adaptive introduction framework. Between 2002 and 2012, we (and our collaborators) carried out ten introductions and augmentations of Florida ziziphus Pseudoziziphus (Condalia, Ziziphus) celata, a clonal shrub limited to very small populations and narrowly endemic to pyrogenic central Florida sandhills. Six of the introductions were designed as experiments to test hypotheses about how demographic performance was affected by microhabitat, fire, and propagule type. Introduced transplants had high survival (<90% annually), inconsistent growth, and little transition to reproduction, while introduced seeds had low germination and survival. Transplants were more efficient than seeds as translocation propagules. Shaded (vs. open) sites supported generally higher transplant and seedling survival and seed germination percentages, but growth responses varied among experiments. Supplemental irrigation increased transplant survival and seed germination, but otherwise seedling and plant survival and growth were not significantly affected. Contrary to expectations based on wild populations, introduced propagules have not been more successful in unshaded sites, suggesting that Florida ziziphus has broader microhabitat preferences than hypothesized. Compared to wild plants, introduced plants had similar survival and responses to fire, slower growth, and more delayed flowering. Introduced plants had no clonal spread. While no introduced population has demonstrated a capacity for long-term viability, one augmented population has flowered and produced viable fruits. Given that Florida ziziphus genets are long-lived, low levels of sexual reproduction may be adequate for the establishment of viable populations. Thus, after many translocations over more than a decade, it is premature to characterize any single translocation as a success or a failure, underscoring the need for a long view of translocation success.

Emerging Issues in Population Viability Analysis.

Population viability analysis ( PVA) has become a commonly used tool in endangered species management. There is no single process that constitutes PVA, but all approaches have in common an assessment of a population's risk of extinction (or quasi extinction) or its projected population growth either under current conditions or expected from proposed management. As model sophistication increases, and software programs that facilitate PVA without the need for modeling expertise become more available, there is greater potential for the misuse of models and increased confusion over interpreting their results. Consequently, we discuss the practical use and limitations of PVA in conservation planning, and we discuss some emerging issues of PVA. We review extant issues that have become prominent in PVA, including spatially explicit modeling, sensitivity analysis, incorporating genetics into PVA, PVA in plants, and PVA software packages, but our coverage of emerging issues is not comprehensive. We conclude that PVA is a powerful tool in conservation biology for comparing alternative research plans and relative extinction risks among species, but we suggest caution in its use: (1) because PVA is a model, its validity depends on the appropriateness of the model's structure and data quality; (2) results should be presented with appropriate assessment of confidence; (3) model construction and results should be subject to external review, and (4) model structure, input, and results should be treated as hypotheses to be tested. We also suggest (5) restricting the definition of PVA to development of a formal quantitative model, (6) focusing more research on determining how pervasive density-dependence feedback is across species, and (7) not using PVA to determine minimum population size or (8) the specific probability of reaching extinction. The most appropriate use of PVA may be for comparing the relative effects of potential management actions on population growth or persistence.

RESUMEN: El análisis de viabilidad poblacional (AVP) es una herramienta de uso común en el manejo de especies en peligro. No hay un proceso único que constituya al AVP, pero todos los enfoques tienen en común la estimación del riesgo de extinción (o cuasi extinción) o la proyección del crecimiento poblacional, ya sea bajo las condiciones actuales o las esperadas del manejo propuesto. A medida que aumenta la sofisticación del modelo, y que se dispone de programas de cómputo que facilitan el AVP sin necesidad de experiencia en modelaje, hay una mayor posibilidad de desaprovechar el modelo y una mayor confusión en la interpretación de los resultados. En consecuencia, discutimos el uso práctico y las limitaciones del AVP en la planificación de conservación y discutimos algunos temas emergentes del AVP. Revisamos temas vigentes que son prominentes en el AVP, incluyendo el modelaje espacialmente explícito, el análisis de sensibilidad, la inclusión de la genética en el AVP, AVP en plantas y paquetes de cómputo de AVP, sin embargo nuestra revisión de los temas emergentes no es amplia. Concluimos que el AVP es una herramienta poderosa para la biología de la conservación para comparar planes de investigación alternos y los riesgos de extinción entre especies, pero sugerimos precaución en su uso: (1) porque el AVP es un modelo cuya validez depende en la eficacia de la estructura del modelo y la calidad de los datos, (2) los resultados deberían presentarse con la evaluación de su confiabilidad, (3) la construcción del modelo y sus resultados deberían ser sometidos a revisión externa y (4) la estructura del modelo, los datos y los resultados deberían ser tratadas como hipótesis a probar. También sugerimos (5) restringir la definición del AVP para desarrollar un modelo cuantitativo formal, (6) realizar más investigación para determinar que tan extensa es la reacción de las especies a la denso-dependencia y (7) no utilizar el AVP para determinar el tamaño poblacional mínimo u (8) la probabilidad específica de extinción. El uso más adecuado del AVP puede ser para comparar los efectos relativos de las acciones de manejo sobre el crecimiento de la población o su persistencia.