ZDHHC9 X-linked intellectual disability: Clinical and molecular characterization.

The ZDHHC9 gene encodes the Zinc Finger DHHC-Type Containing 9 protein that functions as a palmitoyltransferase. Variants in this gene have been reported as the cause of Raymond-type X-linked intellectual disability with only 16 families described in the literature. This study reviews molecular and clinical data from previously reported patients and reports the case of a 13-year-old patient with a splicing variant in ZDHHC9 presenting intellectual disability, developmental delay, facial dysmorphisms, and skeletal defects. Although intellectual disability and developmental delay with severe speech delay have been reported in all cases with available clinical data, the remaining clinical signs differ significantly between patients. Missense, nonsense, frameshift, and splicing variants, in addition to large exonic deletions, have been described suggesting a loss of function mechanism. Though variants are distributed in almost all exons, most missense and nonsense variants affect arginine residues located in the cytoplasmic domains of this transmembrane protein, suggesting possible mutational hotspots.

SHORT syndrome in an adult Brazilian patient.

We report an individual from Brazil with SHORT syndrome. The term SHORT stands for its common characteristics: short stature (S), hyperextensibility of joints, and/or inguinal hernia (H), ocular depression (O), Rieger anomaly (R), and teething delay (T). In addition to most of the clinical signs previously described in SHORT syndrome, the patient presented here also shows microcephaly and intellectual disability. Diagnosis was confirmed by exome sequencing revealing a novel heterozygous variant c.1456G>A (p.Ala486Thr) at PIK3R1. Human recombinant growth hormone (r-hGH) therapy was administered prior to diagnosis; however, the use of r-hGH may have had a role in anticipating and worsening the glucose metabolic profile in the patient, as previously described. This article contributes to providing a better understanding of the SHORT syndrome genotype and its correlation with the phenotype, by comparing with it other reported cases.

miRNA profile and disease severity in patients with sickle cell anemia.

Identification of biomarkers associated with severity in sickle cell anemia is desirable. Circulating serum microRNAs (miRNA) are targets studied as diagnostic or prognostic markers, but few studies have been conducted in sickle cell anemia. The purpose of this study is to identify specific signatures of miRNAs in plasma samples from sickle cell anemia patients according to severity indexes. Screening of the miRNAs expression was performed in 8 patients, classified by tricuspid regurgitation velocity (TRV) measure: 4 with TRV ≥ 2.5 m/s and 4 with TRV < 2.5 m/s. The samples were analyzed by real-time PCR using Megaplex RT Human Pool A and Pool B comprising 667 distinct miRNAs. Seventeen miRNAs were differentially expressed between the two groups (p < 0.05). Five differentially expressed miRNAs (miR15b, miR502, miR510, miR544, miR629) were selected for validation in a cohort of 52 patient samples, 26 with TRV ≥ 2.5 m/s. Another two severity scores were also used: organ injury score (OIS) and Bayesian score (BS). Univariate binary logistic regressions were performed to analyze the data. Five out of 17 differentially expressed miRNAs were selected for validation in 52 patient samples: miR15b, miR502, miR510, miR544, and miR629. Two miRNAs (miR510 and miR629) were significantly decreased in cases of greater severity. Whereas miR510 expression discriminated the patients according to TRV and OIS, miR629 expression did it according to BS. This is the first study investigating plasma miRNAs as possible biomarkers for SCA severity. Our data suggest that low levels of miR510 and miR629 expression are associated with greater SCA disease severity. Further studies are still necessary to elucidate mechanism of these miRNAs and their related proteins.

A current snapshot of common genomic variants contribution in psychiatric disorders.

In the past decade, numerous advances were achieved in psychiatric genetics. Particularly, the genome wide association studies (GWAS) have contributed to uncovering new genes and pathways associated to psychiatric disorders (PDs). At the same time, with increasing sample sizes in the GWAS, the polygenic risk score (PRS) promoted an additional tool for identification and evaluation the genetic risk quantitatively in PDs. This concept review presents the state of the art GWAS analysis and PRS focusing on the genetic underpinnings of PDs. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Characterization of Associated Nonclassical Phenotypes in Patients with Deletion in the WAGR Region Identified by Chromosomal Microarray: New Insights and Literature Review.

WAGR syndrome (Wilms' tumor, aniridia, genitourinary changes, and intellectual disability) is a contiguous gene deletion syndrome characterized by the joint deletion of PAX6 and WT1 genes, located in the short arm of chromosome 11. However, most deletions include other genes, leading to multiple associated phenotypes. Therefore, understanding how genes deleted together can contribute to other clinical phenotypes is still considered a challenge. In order to establish genotype-phenotype correlation in patients with interstitial deletions of the short arm of chromosome 11, we selected 17 patients with deletions identified by chromosomal microarray analysis: 4 new subjects and 13 subjects previously described in the literature with detailed clinical data. Through the analysis of deleted regions and the phenotypic changes, it was possible to suggest the contribution of specific genes to several nonclassical phenotypes, contributing to the accuracy of clinical characterization of the syndrome and emphasizing the broad phenotypic spectrum found in the patients. This study reports the first patient with a PAX6 partial deletion who does not present any eye anomaly thus opening a new set of questions about the functional activity of PAX6.

Insights into how environment shapes post-mortem RNA transcription in mouse brain.

Most biological features that occur on the body after death were already deciphered by traditional medicine. However, the molecular mechanisms triggered in the cellular microenvironment are not fully comprehended yet. Previous studies reported gene expression alterations in the post-mortem condition, but little is known about how the environment could influence RNA degradation and transcriptional regulation. In this work, we analysed the transcriptome of mouse brain after death under three concealment simulations (air exposed, buried, and submerged). Our analyses identified 2,103 genes differentially expressed in all tested groups 48 h after death. Moreover, we identified 111 commonly upregulated and 497 commonly downregulated genes in mice from the concealment simulations. The gene functions shared by the individuals from the tested environments were associated with RNA homeostasis, inflammation, developmental processes, cell communication, cell proliferation, and lipid metabolism. Regarding the altered biological processes, we identified that the macroautophagy process was enriched in the upregulated genes and lipid metabolism was enriched in the downregulated genes. On the other hand, we also described a list of biomarkers associated with the submerged and buried groups, indicating that these environments can influence the post-mortem RNA abundance in its particular way.

Aging biological markers in a cohort of antipsychotic-naïve first-episode psychosis patients.

Schizophrenia is a severe and multifactorial disorder with an unknown causative pathophysiology. Abnormalities in neurodevelopmental and aging processes have been reported. Relative telomere length (RTL) and DNA methylation age (DMA), well-known biomarkers for estimating biological age, are both commonly altered in patients with schizophrenia compared to healthy controls. However, few studies investigated these aging biomarkers in first-episode psychosis (FEP) and in antipsychotic-naïve patients. To cover the existing gap regarding DMA and RTL in FEP and antipsychotic treatment, we aimed to verify whether those aging markers could be associated with psychosis and treatment response. Thus, we evaluated these measures in the blood of FEP antipsychotic-naïve patients and healthy controls (HC), as well as the response to antipsychotics after 10 weeks of treatment with risperidone. RTL was measured in 392 subjects, being 80 FEP and 312 HC using qPCR, while DMA was analyzed in a subset of 60 HC, 60 FEP patients (antipsychotic-naïve) and 59 FEP-10W (after treatment) using the "Multi-tissue Predictor"and the Infinium HumanMethylation450 BeadChip Kit. We observed diminished DMA and longer RTL in FEP patients before treatment compared to healthy controls, indicating a decelerated aging process in those patients. We found no statistical difference between responder and non-responder patients at baseline for both markers. An increased DMA was observed in patients after 10 weeks of treatment, however, after adjusting for blood cell composition, no significant association remained. Our findings indicate a decelerated aging process in the early phases of the disease.

Fluoxetine chronic exposure affects growth, behavior and tissue structure of zebrafish.

Fluoxetine (FLX) is among the top 100 pharmaceutical prescribed annually worldwide and consequently is often detected in wastewater treatment plant effluent and surface waters, in concentrations up to 2.7 and 0.33 µg/L, respectively. Despite the presence of FLX in surface waters, little is known about its chronic effects in fish. Thus, this study aimed at investigating the chronic toxicity of FLX to Danio rerio adults. Rate of weight gain, behavior (feeding and swimming activity) and tissue organization (liver and intestine) were evaluated, after 30 days exposure. A lower rate of weight gain was observed at 100 µg/L FLX. The food intake time decreased, showing a decrease in fish appetite. The preference for the upper aquarium layer was observed at 10 and 100 µg/L of FLX, indicating an inhibition of the stress level (anxiolytic effect). Mild to moderate damage of hepatic tissue and a decrease epithelium height and increase in villus height of intestine were observed in fish exposed to concentrations as low as 0.01 µg/L. Based on obtained results, chronic exposure of fish to FLX could affect swimming and feeding behavior and alter morphological structure of liver and intestine tissues at environmental levels.

LINE-1 hypomethylation is associated with poor risperidone response in a first episode of psychosis cohort.

Aim: We investigated the DNA methylation profile over LINE-1 in antipsychotic-naive, first-episode psychosis-patients (n = 69) before and after 2 months of risperidone treatment and in healthy controls (n = 62). Materials & methods: Patients were evaluated using standardized scales and classified as responders and nonresponders. DNA from blood was bisulfite converted and LINE-1 fragments were amplified and pyrosequencing was performed. Results: Lower LINE-1 methylation was observed in antipsychotic-naive first-episode psychosis patients than in healthy controls. Lower DNA methylation levels before treatment were associated with poor risperidone responses. A positive correlation was observed between LINE-1 methylation levels and positive symptoms response. Conclusion: Our study brings new insight regarding how epigenomic studies and clinical correlation studies can supplement psychosis treatment.

Defining the Critical Region for Intellectual Disability and Brain Malformations in 6q27 Microdeletions.

Terminal microdeletions of the long arm of chromosome 6 are associated with a phenotype that includes multiple brain malformations, intellectual disability, and epilepsy. A 1.7-Mb region has been proposed to contain a gene responsible for the brain anomalies. Here, we present the case of a 12-year-old girl with multiple brain alterations and moderate intellectual disability with a 18-kb deletion in chromosome 6q27, which is smaller than the microdeletions previously described by microarray analysis. We refined the smallest region of overlap possibly associated with the phenotype of brain malformations and intellectual disability to a segment of 325 kb, comprising the DLL1, PSMB1, TBP, and PDCD2 genes since these genes were structurally and/or functionally lost in the smaller deletions described to date. We hypothesize that DLL1 is responsible for brain malformations and possibly interacts with other adjacent genes. The TBP gene encodes a transcription factor which is potentially related to cognitive development. TBP is linked to PSMB1 and PDCD2 in a conserved manner among mammals, suggesting a potential interaction between these genes. In conclusion, the 6q27 microdeletion is a complex syndrome with variable expressivity of brain malformations and intellectual disability phenotypes which are possibly triggered by the 4 genes described and adjacent genes susceptible to gene regulation changes.

Gene expression over the course of schizophrenia: from clinical high-risk for psychosis to chronic stages.

The study of patients with schizophrenia (SZ) at different clinical stages may help clarify what effects could be due to the disease itself, to the pharmacological treatment, or to the disease progression. We compared expression levels of targeted genes in blood from individuals in different stages of SZ: clinical high risk for psychosis (CHR), first episode of psychosis (FEP), and chronic SZ (CSZ). Then, we further verified whether single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) could be related to gene expression differences. We investigated 12 genes in 394 individuals (27 individuals with CHR, 70 antipsychotic-naive individuals with FEP, 157 CSZ patients, and 140 healthy controls (HCs)). For a subsample, genotype data were also available, and we extracted SNPs that were previously associated with the expression of selected genes in whole blood or brain tissue. We generated a mediation model in which a putative cause (SNP) is related to a presumed effect (disorder) via an intermediate variable (gene expression). MBP and NDEL1 were upregulated in FEP compared to all other groups; DGCR8 was downregulated in FEP compared to HC and CHR; DGCR2 was downregulated in CSZ compared to FEP and HCs; DISC1 was upregulated in schizophrenia compared to controls or FEP, possibly induced by the rs3738398 and rs10864693 genotypes, which were associated with DISC1 expression; and UFD1 was upregulated in CSZ and CHR compared to FEP and HC. Our results indicated changes in gene expression profiles throughout the different clinical stages of SZ, reinforcing the need for staging approaches to better capture SZ heterogeneity.

DGCR2 influences cortical thickness through a mechanism independent of schizophrenia pathogenesis.

We investigated the role of DGCR2, a corticogenesis-related gene, on schizophrenia (SZ) and its subphenotypes, including brain morphology. A total of 221 SZ patients, 263 controls and 70 antipsychotic-naïve first episode of psychosis (FEP) were genotyped for 17 DGCR2 polymorphisms. While no association between DGCR2 polymorphisms and SZ was found, the missense variant rs2072123 was associated to left rostral anterior cingulate thickness, showing that DGCR2 seems not to be associated directly with the SZ but might be influencing the brain morphology. We also showed a DGCR2 downregulation in SZ patients when compared to controls and FEP.

Accessing Gene Expression in Treatment-Resistant Schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a mental disorder arising from a complex interaction of genetic and environmental factors. It has been suggested that treatment-resistant schizophrenia (TRS) is a distinct, more severe, and homogenous subgroup of schizophrenia that could present specific biological markers. Our aim was to characterize expression of target genes in blood of TRS patients compared with non-TRS (NTRS) patients and healthy controls (HC). TRS has been defined using failure to respond to two previous antipsychotic trials. We hypothesized that genes involved in neurodevelopment, myelination, neuroplasticity, neurotransmission, and miRNA processing could be involved in treatment resistance; then, we investigated 13 genes related to those processes in 256 subjects, being 94 healthy controls and 162 schizophrenia patients treated with antipsychotics. Of those, 78 were TRS patients and 84 were NTRS patients. Peripheral blood samples were collected from all subjects and RNA was isolated. Gene expression analysis was performed using the TaqMan low-density array (TLDA) technology. To verify the influence of expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs), we evaluated single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) of all genes using data from GTEx Project. SNP genotypes were obtained from HumanOmniExpress BeadChip. We did not detect gene expression differences between TRS and NTRS subjects, indicating candidate genes specific to treatment resistance. We detected an upregulation of CNR1 and UFD1L gene expression in patients (TRS and NTRS groups) when compared to controls, that may be associated with the release of neurotransmitters, which can influence neuronal plasticity, or with a stress response-activating protein degradation. DICER1 and AKT1 expression increased slightly across the groups and could differentiate only the extreme opposite groups, HC and TRS. Both genes act in heterogeneous pathways, such as cell signaling and miRNA processing, and seem to have an increased demand in the TRS group. We did not detect any eQTLs in our sample that could explain differences in mRNA levels, suggesting a possible regulation by other mechanism, not driven by genotypes. Our data strengthen the importance of several biological pathways involved in the schizophrenia refractoriness and severity, adding knowledge to develop more effective treatments in the future.

Effect of male-specific childhood trauma on telomere length.

Child maltreatment (CM) is a global issue with serious lifelong consequences. In fact, maltreatment during childhood might be an important risk factor for the development of psychiatric disorders. Furthermore, previous studies showed a strong relationship between telomere length (TL) and early life stress. Considering that only a few studies have evaluated this relationship in children and that even fewer considered the sex as a possible moderator, we investigated whether TL in the blood of both children and adolescents was associated with psychopathology and with a history of CM, and whether these associations were moderated by the sex. In this cross-sectional study, 561 individuals (ranging between 6 and 14 years of age) from a large prospective community school-based study, i.e., the Brazilian High-Risk Cohort (HRC), were evaluated. The Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) score was used to assess psychopathology, whereas a latent variable encompassing some questions about history of adverse environment and trauma was employed to determine the CM history. TL was measured in blood cells using a multiplex quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Additionally, TL was inserted in two moderation models, in which the CBCL score/CM, TL and sex were the independent variables, the outcome, and the moderator variable, respectively. Although an association between psychiatric symptoms and TL was not observed, a relation between CM and TL moderated by the sex was seen, indicating that males with higher CM scores presented with shorter telomeres than did females. Our results suggest that child maltreatment could influence telomere length in both children and adolescents and that this effect is mediated by the sex.

Polygenic risk score analyses of symptoms and treatment response in an antipsychotic-naive first episode of psychosis cohort.

In this study, we aimed to test if the schizophrenia (SCZ) polygenic risk score (PRS) was associated with clinical symptoms in (a) the first episode of psychosis pre-treatment (FEP), (b) at nine weeks after initiation of risperidone treatment (FEP-9W) and (c) with the response to risperidone. We performed a detailed clinical assessment of 60 FEP patients who were antipsychotic-naive and, again, after nine weeks of standardized treatment with risperidone. After blood collection and DNA isolation, the samples were genotyped using the Illumina PsychArrayChip and then imputed. To calculate PRS, we used the latest available GWAS summary statistics from the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium wave-2 SCZ group as a training set. We used Poisson regression to test association between PRS and clinical measurements correcting for the four principal components (genotyping). We considered a p-value < 0.0014 (Bonferroni correction) as significant. First, we verified that the schizophrenia PRS was also able to distinguish cases from controls in this south-eastern Brazilian sample, with a similar variance explained to that seen in Northern European populations. In addition, within-cases analyses, we found that PRS is significantly correlated with baseline (pre-treatment) symptoms, as measured by lower clinical global assessment of functioning (-GAF), higher depressive symptoms and higher scores on a derived excitement factor. After standardized treatment for nine weeks, the correlation with GAF and the excitement factor disappeared while depressive symptoms became negatively associated with PRS. We conclude that drug (and other treatments) may confound attempts to understand the aetiological influence on symptomatology of polygenic risk scores. These results highlight the importance of studying schizophrenia, and other disorders, pre-treatment to understand the relationship between polygenic risk and phenotypic features.

Leukocyte telomere length variation in different stages of schizophrenia.

Recent research has demonstrated that telomere maintenance might be a key integrating point for the cumulative effect of genetic and environmental factors in patients with first-episode psychosis (FEP) and schizophrenia (SCZ). Eighty-one participants with antipsychotic-naïve FEP, 173 with SCZ and 438 HC were enrolled in this study. Psychiatric diagnosis was assessed using the Semi-Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis-I (SCID-I). The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS) and Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia (CDSS) were used to measure symptoms severity. Telomere length (TL) was determined using a multiplex qPCR assay. After adjustment for age, years of education, and smoking status, we found that patients with SCZ had longer TL (relative ratio (RR) = 1.08) than the HC group (RR = 1.00, Wald χ2 = 12.48, p = 0.002). Further, non-remitted SCZ patients presented longer TL (RR = 1.00) compared to remitted SCZ (RR = 0.88, Wald χ2 = 7.20, p = 0.007). TL in patients also correlated to psychopathology assessment in terms of total (p = 0.003) and positive PANSS scores (p = 0.001). No correlation with negative PANSS, YMRS, and CDSS or effects of medication was found on TL. Although the exact pathways underlying longer TL in SCZ patients remain unclear, these findings raise more questions than answers and suggest that TL may be of immense value on SCZ progression. Further studies are required to investigate the association of TL in FEP and SCZ.

Stress-related telomere length in children: A systematic review.

Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences at the ends of chromatids that shorten following each cell replication. Once telomeres reach a critical length, DNA defense mechanisms can direct cells to either a state of arrest (senescence) or apoptosis. Stress induced by adversity is a probable cause of accelerated telomere shortening from an early age. However, few studies have examined the association between stress and telomere length in children, and it remains unclear whether young individuals may show signs of cellular aging early in life. Our aim was to examine whether adversity in childhood is associated with shortening of telomere length. We conducted a systematic review of studies that investigated the association between stress and telomere length in children from 3 to 15 years of age. Eleven studies met our selection criteria. We concluded that adversity in childhood (such as violence, low socioeconomic status, maternal depression, family disruption, and institutionalization) have an impact on telomere length. This suggests that exposed individuals show signs of accelerated erosion of telomeric ends from an early age. We discuss whether telomere shortening is related to negative health outcomes later in life or could be a biomarker predicting health outcomes. We believe that further large-scale longitudinal studies that repeatedly monitor telomere length are very important for providing a better assessment of telomere trajectory in psychologically stressed children. This will verify the extent to which adversity impacts upon the biological development of cell aging in childhood.

Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) polymorphisms modulate working memory in individuals with schizophrenia and healthy controls.

OBJECTIVE: Cognitive impairment is a core feature of schizophrenia, related to dopaminergic dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). It is hypothesized that functional single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs4680 of the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene could mediate the relationship between cognition and dopamine activity in the PFC. Other COMT SNPs could also play a role. METHODS: We evaluated the role of three COMT SNPs (rs737865, rs165599, and rs4680) in schizophrenia and their impact on three working memory tasks. For genetic association analyses, 212 individuals with schizophrenia and 257 healthy controls (HCs) were selected. The Visual Working Memory (VWM) Task, Keep Track Task, and Letter Memory Task were administered to 133 schizophrenics and 93 HCs. RESULTS: We found a significant association of rs737865, with the GG genotype exerting a protective effect and the GA haplotype (rs4680/rs165599) exerting a risk effect for schizophrenia. COMT rs4680 AA carriers and rs737865 AA carriers scored lowest on the Keep Track Task. When the genotype*group interaction effect was evaluated, rs165599 exerted opposite effects for VWM and Keep Track task performance in patients and controls, with AA carriers scoring lowest on both tests among controls, but highest among patients. CONCLUSION: These data support the hypothesis that COMT polymorphisms may be associated with schizophrenia and modulate cognition in patients and controls.

Gene expression in blood of children and adolescents: Mediation between childhood maltreatment and major depressive disorder.

Investigating major depressive disorder (MDD) in childhood and adolescence can help reveal the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors to MDD, since early stages of disease have less influence of illness exposure. Thus, we investigated the mRNA expression of 12 genes related to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, inflammation, neurodevelopment and neurotransmission in the blood of children and adolescents with MDD and tested whether a history of childhood maltreatment (CM) affects MDD through gene expression. Whole-blood mRNA levels of 12 genes were compared among 20 children and adolescents with MDD diagnosis (MDD group), 49 participants without MDD diagnosis but with high levels of depressive symptoms (DS group), and 61 healthy controls (HC group). The differentially expressed genes were inserted in a mediation model in which CM, MDD, and gene expression were, respectively, the independent variable, outcome, and intermediary variable. NR3C1, TNF, TNFR1 and IL1B were expressed at significantly lower levels in the MDD group than in the other groups. CM history did not exert a significant direct effect on MDD. However, an indirect effect of the aggregate expression of the 4 genes mediated the relationship between CM and MDD. In the largest study investigating gene expression in children with MDD, we demonstrated that NR3C1, TNF, TNFR1 and IL1B expression levels are related to MDD and conjunctly mediate the effect of CM history on the risk of developing MDD. This supports a role of glucocorticoids and inflammation as potential effectors of environmental stress in MDD.