Carotid plaque inflammation on 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography predicts early stroke recurrence.

OBJECTIVE: Symptomatic carotid stenosis is associated with a 3-fold risk of early stroke recurrence compared to other stroke subtypes. Current carotid imaging techniques rely on estimating plaque-related lumen narrowing but do not evaluate intraplaque inflammation, a key mediator of plaque rupture and thromboembolism. Using combined (18) F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron-emission tomography (FDG-PET)/computed tomography, we investigated the relation between inflammation-related FDG uptake and stroke recurrence. METHODS: Consecutive patients with a recent (median, 6.5 days; interquartile range, 4-8) stroke, transient ischemic attack (TIA), or retinal embolism and ipsilateral carotid stenosis (≥50%) were included. FDG uptake was quantified as mean standardized uptake values (SUVs, g/ml). Patients were followed prospectively for stroke recurrence. RESULTS: Sixty patients were included (25 stroke, 29 TIA, 6 retinal embolism). Twenty-two percent (13 of 60) had stroke recurrence within 90 days. FDG uptake in ipsilateral carotid plaque was greater in patients with early recurrent stroke (mean SUV, 1.85 g/ml; standard deviation [SD], 0.44 vs 1.58 g/ml; SD, 0.32, p = 0.02). On life-table analysis, 90-day recurrence rates with mean SUV greater than a 2.14 g/ml threshold were 80% (95% confidence interval [CI], 41.8-99.2) versus 22.9% (95% CI, 12.3-40.3) with SUV ≤2.14 g/ml (log-rank, p < 0.0001). In a Cox regression model including age and degree of stenosis (50-69% or ≥70%), mean plaque FDG uptake was the only independent predictor of stroke recurrence (adjusted hazard ratio, 6.1; 95% CI, 1.3-28.8; p = 0.02). INTERPRETATION: In recently symptomatic carotid stenosis, inflammation-related FDG uptake was associated with early stroke recurrence, independent of the degree of stenosis. Plaque FDG-PET may identify patients at highest risk for stroke recurrence, who may be selected for immediate revascularization or intensive medical treatment.

Incidence, event rates, and early outcome of stroke in Dublin, Ireland: the North Dublin population stroke study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The World Health Organization has emphasized the importance of international population-based data for unbiased surveillance of stroke incidence and outcome. To date, few such studies have been conducted using recommended gold-standard ascertainment methods. We conducted a large, population-based stroke study in Dublin, Ireland. METHODS: Using gold-standard ascertainment methods, individuals with stroke and transient ischemic attack occurring over a 12-month period (December 1, 2005-November 30, 2006) in North Dublin were identified. Disability was assessed using the modified Rankin score and stroke severity (<72 hours) by the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale. Stroke-related deaths were confirmed by review of medical files, death certificates, pathology, and coroner's records. Crude and standardized (to European and World Health Organization standard populations) rates of incidence, risk factors, severity, and early outcome (mortality, case-fatality, disability) were calculated, assuming a Poisson distribution for the number of events. RESULTS: Seven hundred one patients with new stroke or transient ischemic attack were ascertained (485 first-ever stroke patients, 83 recurrent stroke patients, 133 first-ever transient ischemic attack patients). Crude frequency rates (all rates per 1000 person-years) were: 1.65 (95% CI, 1.5-1.79; first-ever stroke), 0.28 (95% CI, 0.22-0.35; recurrent stroke), and 0.45 (95% CI, 0.37-0.53; first-ever transient ischemic attack). Age-adjusted stroke rates were higher than those in 9 other recent population-based samples from high-income countries. High rates of subtype-specific risk factors were observed (atrial fibrillation, 31.3% and smoking, 29.1% in ischemic stroke; warfarin use, 21.2% in primary intracerebral hemorrhage; smoking, 53.9% in subarachnoid hemorrhage; P<0.01 for all compared with other subtypes). Compared with recent studies, 28-day case-fatality rates for primary intracerebral hemorrhage (41%; 95% CI, 29.2%-54.1%) and subarachnoid hemorrhage (46%; 95% CI, 28.8%-64.5%) were greater in Dublin. CONCLUSIONS: Using gold-standard methods for case ascertainment, we found high incidence rates of stroke in Dublin compared with those in similar high-income countries; this is likely explained in part by high rates of subtype-specific risk factors.

Association between acute statin therapy, survival, and improved functional outcome after ischemic stroke: the North Dublin Population Stroke Study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Statins improve infarct volume and neurological outcome in animal stroke models. We investigated the relationship between statin therapy and ischemic stroke outcome in the North Dublin Population Stroke Study. METHODS: A population-based prospective cohort study was performed using rigorous ascertainment methods. Prestroke and acute (≤72 hours) poststroke medications were recorded. Modified Rankin score and fatality were assessed at 7, 28, and 90 days and 1 year. RESULTS: Of 448 ischemic stroke patients, statins were prescribed before stroke onset in 30.1% (134/445) and were begun acutely (≤72 hours) in an additional 42.5% (189/445). On logistic regression analysis, adjusting for age, prestroke disability (modified Rankin scale), NIHSS score, hypertension, and aspirin, new poststroke statin therapy was independently associated with improved early and late survival (compared with statin untreated patients: OR for death, 0.12; CI, 0.03-0.54 at 7 days; OR, 0.19; CI, 0.07-0.48 at 90 days; OR, 0.26; CI, 0.12-0.55 at 1 year; P≤0.006 for all). Similar findings were observed for statin therapy before stroke onset (adjusted OR for death compared with statin-untreated-patients, 0.04; CI, 0.00-0.33; P=0.003 at 7 days; OR, 0.23; CI, 0.09-0.58; P=0.002 at 90 days; OR, 0.48; CI, 0.23-1.01; P=0.05 at 1 year). CONCLUSIONS: Statin therapy at stroke onset and newly begun statins were associated with improved early and late outcomes, supporting data from experimental studies. Randomized trials of statin therapy for treatment of acute stroke are needed.

Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis: an important differential diagnosis in psychosis.

We present four cases of confirmed anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis; three presented initially with serious psychiatric symptoms and the other developed significant psychiatric symptoms during the initial phase of illness. Brain biopsy findings of one patient are also described. Psychiatrists should consider anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis in patients presenting with psychosis and additional features of dyskinesias, seizures and catatonia, particularly where there is no previous history of psychiatric disorder.

Moyamoya disease and moyamoya syndrome in Ireland: patient demographics, mode of presentation and outcomes of EC-IC bypass surgery.

BACKGROUND: There are no previously published reports regarding the epidemiology and characteristics of moyamoya disease or syndrome in Ireland. AIMS: To examine patient demographics, mode of presentation and the outcomes of extracranial-intracranial bypass surgery in the treatment of moyamoya disease and syndrome in Ireland. METHODS: All patients with moyamoya disease and syndrome referred to the National Neurosurgical Centre during January 2012-January 2019 were identified through a prospective database. Demographics, clinical presentation, radiological findings, surgical procedures, postoperative complications and any strokes during follow-up were recorded. RESULTS: Twenty-one patients were identified. Sixteen underwent surgery. Median age at diagnosis was 19 years. Fifteen were female. Mode of presentation was ischaemic stroke in nine, haemodynamic TIAs in eight, haemorrhage in three and incidental in one. Sixteen patients had Moyamoya disease, whereas five patients had moyamoya syndrome. Surgery was performed on 19 hemispheres in 16 patients. The surgical procedures consisted of ten direct (STA-MCA) bypasses, five indirect bypasses and four multiple burr holes. Postoperative complications included ischaemic stroke in one patient and subdural haematoma in one patient. The median follow-up period in the surgical group was 52 months; there was one new stroke during this period. Two patients required further revascularisation following recurrent TIAs. One patient died during follow-up secondary to tumour progression associated with neurofibromatosis type 1. CONCLUSIONS: Moyamoya is rare but occurs in Caucasians in Ireland. It most commonly presents with ischaemic symptoms. Surgical intervention in the form of direct and indirect bypass is an effective treatment in the majority of cases.

Population-based study of ABCD2 score, carotid stenosis, and atrial fibrillation for early stroke prediction after transient ischemic attack: the North Dublin TIA study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Transient ischemic attack (TIA) etiologic data and the ABCD(2) score may improve early stroke risk prediction, but studies are required in population-based cohorts. We investigated the external validity of the ABCD(2) score, carotid stenosis, and atrial fibrillation for prediction of early recurrent stroke after TIA. METHODS: Patients with TIA in the North Dublin city population (N=294 529) were ascertained by using overlapping hospital and community sources. The relations between individual ABCD(2) items, carotid stenosis, atrial fibrillation, and early stroke were examined. RESULTS: In confirmed TIA cases (n=443), carotid stenosis predicted 90-day stroke (hazard ratio=2.56; 95% CI, 1.27 to 5.15, P=0.003). Stroke risk rose with increasing grade of carotid stenosis, ranging from 5.4% (95% CI, 3.3% to 8.7%) with <50% stenosis to 17.2% (95% CI, 9.7% to 29.7%) with severe stenosis/occlusion (hazard ratio=3.3; 95% CI, 1.5 to 7.4, P=0.002). In confirmed TIA cases (n=443), the ABCD(2) score performed no better than chance for prediction of 90-day stroke (c-statistic=0.55; 95% CI, 0.45 to 0.64), largely related to the 24.2% (8/33) of patients who experienced a recurrence and had low ABCD(2) scores (0-3). However, in nonspecialist-suspected TIA cases (n=700), the predictive utility improved for stroke at 28 (c-statistic=0.61; 95% CI, 0.50 to 0.72) and 90 (c-statistic=0.61; 95% CI, 0.52 to 0.71) days. CONCLUSIONS: In a population-based TIA cohort, significant predictive information was provided by carotid stenosis. The ABCD(2) score had predictive utility in patients with TIA suspected by nonspecialists. Low scores occurred in several patients with stroke recurrences, suggesting that caution is needed before using the score in isolation.

Stroke associated with atrial fibrillation--incidence and early outcomes in the north Dublin population stroke study.

BACKGROUND: Prospective population-based studies are important to accurately determine the incidence and characteristics of stroke associated with atrial fibrillation (AF), while avoiding selection bias which may complicate hospital-based studies. METHODS: We investigated AF-associated stroke within the North Dublin Population Stroke Study, a prospective cohort study of stroke/transient ischaemic attack in 294,592 individuals, according to recommended criteria for rigorous stroke epidemiological studies. RESULTS: Of 568 stroke patients ascertained in the first year, 31.2% (177/568) were associated with AF (90.4%, i.e. 160/177 ischaemic infarcts). The crude incidence rate of all AF-associated stroke was 60/100,000 person-years (95% CI = 52-70). Prior stroke was almost twice as common in AF compared to non-AF groups (21.9 vs. 12.8%, p = 0.01). The frequency of AF progressively increased across ischaemic stroke patients stratified by increasing stroke severity (NIHSS 0-4, 29.7%; 5-9, 38.1%; 10-14, 43.8%; >or=15, 53.3%, p < 0.0001). The 90-day trajectory of recovery of AF-associated stroke was identical to that of non-AF stroke, but Rankin scores in AF stroke remained higher at 7, 28 and 90 days (p < 0.001 for all). DISCUSSION: AF-associated stroke occurred in one third of all patients and was associated with a distinct profile of recurrent, severe and disabling stroke. Targeted strategies to increase anticoagulation rates may provide a substantial benefit to prevent severe disabling stroke at a population level.

The Modified Rivermead Mobility Index: reliability and convergent validity in a mixed neurological population.

PURPOSE: To assess the inter-rater reliability, internal consistency and convergent validity of the Modified Rivermead Mobility Index (MRMI) in a mixed neurological population. METHOD: The MRMI was scored for 30 consecutive patients (mean age 54.5+/-15.6 years) by two individual testers. Reliability was examined using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC3,1) and Bland and Altman plots; internal consistency reliability using Cronbach's alpha (alpha) and convergent validity using Spearman's correlation coefficient (rho) test to compare the MRMI to the 10-m walk test as a gold standard of mobility. As the majority of patients had bilateral deficits, the MRMI was measured and added independently for both sides. RESULTS: The inter-rater reliability was excellent: ICC (95% CI)=0.93(0.86, 0.96). The Bland and Altman plots contained most data points and there was perfect agreement between raters bilaterally in 27% of cases, with a difference of one point in 60% of cases on the left and 63% of cases on the right. Internal consistency was good at alpha=0.72 (Rater 1) and 0.80 (Rater 2). The Spearman rho between MRMI and the 10-m walk test was high at 0.86. CONCLUSIONS: The MRMI was shown to have high levels of reliability in a mixed neurological population but we recommend that its psychometric properties are further investigated to establish the true clinical utility of this measure.

Diagnostic usefulness of the ABCD2 score to distinguish transient ischemic attack and minor ischemic stroke from noncerebrovascular events: the North Dublin TIA Study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Transient ischemic attack (TIA) diagnosis is frequently difficult in clinical practice. Noncerebrovascular symptoms are often misclassified as TIA by nonspecialist physicians. Clinical prediction rules such as ABCD(2) improve the identification of patients with TIA at high risk of early stroke. We hypothesized that the ABCD(2) score may partly improve risk stratification due to improved discrimination of true TIA and minor ischemic stroke (MIS) from noncerebrovascular events. METHODS: Consecutive patients with TIA were identified within a prospective population-based cohort study of stroke and TIA. The cohort was expanded by inclusion of patients with MIS and noncerebrovascular events referred to a daily TIA clinic serving the population. Diagnosis was assigned by a trained stroke physician independent of ABCD(2) score. RESULTS: Five hundred ninety-four patients were included (292 [49.2%] TIA, 45 [7.6%] MIS, and 257 [43.3%] noncerebrovascular). The mean ABCD(2) score showed a graded increase across diagnostic groups (MIS mean 4.8 [SD 1.4] versus TIA mean 3.9 [SD 1.5] versus noncerebrovascular mean 2.9 [SD 1.5]; P<0.00001). The ABCD(2) score discriminated well between noncerebrovascular and cerebrovascular events-TIA (c-statistic 0.68; 95% CI, 0.64 to 0.72), any vascular event (TIA+MIS; c-statistic 0.7; 95% CI, 0.66 to 0.74), and MIS (c-statistic 0.81; 95% CI, 0.75 to 0.87)-from noncerebrovascular events. Of ABCD(2) items, unilateral weakness (OR, 4.5; 95% CI, 3.1 to 6.6) and speech disturbance (OR, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.6, 4.1) were most likely overrepresented in TIA compared with noncerebrovascular groups. CONCLUSIONS: The ABCD(2) score had significant diagnostic usefulness for discrimination of true TIA and MIS from noncerebrovascular events, which may contribute to its predictive usefulness.

Incidence of dementia after ischemic stroke: results of a longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: A number of cross-sectional epidemiological studies have reported that one fourth of elderly patients meet criteria for dementia 3 months after ischemic stroke, but few longitudinal studies of the incidence of dementia after stroke have been performed. We conducted the present study to investigate the incidence and clinical predictors of dementia after ischemic stroke. METHODS: We administered neurological, neuropsychological, and functional assessments annually to 334 ischemic stroke patients (age, 70.4+/-7.5 years) and 241 stroke-free control subjects (age, 70.6+/-6.5 years), all of whom were nondemented in baseline examinations. We diagnosed incident dementia using modified Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Revised Third Edition criteria requiring deficits in memory and > or =2 additional cognitive domains, as well as functional impairment. RESULTS: The crude incidence rate of dementia was 8.49 cases per 100 person-years in the stroke cohort and 1.37 cases per 100 person-years in the control cohort. A Cox proportional-hazards analysis found that the relative risk (RR) of incident dementia associated with stroke was 3.83 (95% CI, 2.14 to 6.84), adjusting for demographic variables and baseline Mini-Mental State Examination score. Within the stroke cohort, intercurrent medical illnesses associated with cerebral hypoxia or ischemia were independently related to incident dementia (RR, 4.40; 95% CI, 2.20 to 8.85), adjusting for recurrent stroke, demographic variables, and baseline Mini-Mental State Examination score. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of incident dementia is high among patients with ischemic stroke, particularly in association with intercurrent medical illnesses that might cause cerebral hypoxia or ischemia, suggesting that cerebral hypoperfusion may serve as a basis for some cases of dementia after stroke.

Mortality in patients with dementia after ischemic stroke.

OBJECTIVE: Although dementia is typically considered to be a consequence of a variety of neurologic diseases, it can also serve as a risk factor for other adverse outcomes. The authors investigated dementia as a predictor of long-term survival among patients with ischemic stroke. METHODS: Neurologic, neuropsychological, and functional assessments were administered to 453 patients (mean age +/- SD, 72.0 +/- 8.3 years) 3 months after ischemic stroke. The authors diagnosed dementia in 119 (26.3%) of the patients using modified Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Revised 3rd Edition, criteria requiring deficits in memory and two or more additional cognitive domains as well as functional impairment. Dementia as a predictor of long-term survival during up to 10 years of follow-up was then investigated. RESULTS: The mortality rate was 15.90 deaths per 100 person-years among patients with dementia and 5.37 deaths per 100 person-years among nondemented patients. A Cox proportional hazards analysis found that the relative risk (RR) of death was increased in association with dementia (RR = 2.4; 95% CI = 1.6 to 3.4), adjusting for the following: a major hemispheral stroke syndrome (RR = 1.4); a middle cerebral artery territory index stroke (RR = 1.7); a Stroke Severity Scale score of > or = 4, representing more severe stroke (RR = 1.8); atrial fibrillation (RR = 1.8); congestive heart failure (RR = 2.2); recurrent stroke occurring during follow-up (RR = 3.9); and demographic variables. The risk of death increased in association with the severity of dementia, but it did not differ by dementia subtype. CONCLUSIONS: Dementia is a significant independent risk factor for reduced survival after ischemic stroke, adjusting for other recognized predictors of mortality. The authors hypothesize that patients with dementia are at an elevated risk of mortality because of their increased burden of cerebrovascular disease, a tendency toward undertreatment for stroke prophylaxis among clinicians, or patient noncompliance with treatment regimens.

The Oxfordshire Community Stroke Project classification: correlation with imaging, associated complications, and prediction of outcome in acute ischemic stroke.

This preliminary study investigates the risk factor profile, post stroke complications, and outcome for four OCSP (Oxfordshire Community Stroke Project Classification) subtypes. One hundred seventeen consecutive ischemic stroke patients were clinically classified into 1 of 4 subtypes: total anterior (TACI), partial anterior (PACI), lacunar (LACI), and posterior (POCI) circulation infarcts. Study evaluations were performed at admission, 2 weeks, and 6 months. There was a good correlation between clinical classification and radiological diagnosis if a negative CT head was considered consistent with a lacunar infarction. No significant difference in risk factor profile was observed between subtypes. The TACI group had significantly higher mortality (P < .001), morbidity (P < .001, as per disability scales), length of hospital stay (P < .001), and complications (respiratory tract infection and seizures [P < .01]) as compared to the other three groups which were all similar at the different time points. The only significant difference found was the higher rate of stroke recurrence within the first 6 months in the POCI group (P < .001). The OCSP classification identifies two major groups (TACI and other 3 groups combined) who behave differently with respect to post stroke outcome. Further study with larger numbers of patients and thus greater power will be required to allow better discrimination of OCSP subtypes in respect of risk factors, complications, and outcomes if the OCSP is to be used to stratify patients in clinical trials.

The Orpington Prognostic Scale within the first 48 hours of admission as a predictor of outcome in ischemic stroke.

This study investigates the prognostic ability of the Orpington Prognostic Scale within 48 hours (OPS-1) after admission in predicting outcome at 6 months and 2 years in acute ischemic stroke and compares it with the 2 week OPS (OPS-2). All consecutive ischemic stroke patients (n = 117) were scored on the OPS, Barthel activities of daily living, Oxford handicap scale, European stroke scale, and Rivermead motor assessment at 48 hours, 2 weeks, 6 months, and 2 years post-stroke. Baseline OPS scores at 48 hours and 2 weeks were used to predict outcomes at 6 months and 2 years. The OPS-1 was an excellent predictor of length of hospital stay (P < .001), place of discharge (P < .01), and outcome at 6 months and 2 years (P < .0001, Fisher's exact). The OPS-2 was marginally better than the OPS-1 though this benefit was outweighed by the earlier stratification of the 48-hour measure. The sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive values (PPV) of the "good" OPS-1 versus the OPS-2 at predicting independence at 6 months were 85% vs 92%, 85% vs 63% and 87% vs 92%, respectively. The sensitivity, specificity, and PPV of the "poor" OPS-1 versus OPS-2 were 48% v 35%, 97% v 100%, and 93% v 100% respectively. The OPS at 48 hours is a good predictor of outcome at 6 months and 2 years after ischemic stroke and allows early identification of 3 prognostic groups, which may help in identifying patients most likely to benefit from intensive rehabilitation.

MELAS, an important consideration in the adult population presenting with unusual and recurrent stroke-like episodes.

A 48-year-old man was admitted for workup of stroke-like symptoms and generalised tonic-clonic seizures. History and examination revealed that the patient had background diagnoses of type 2 diabetes mellitus, epilepsy and had suffered a temporal lobe infarct 3 years ago. The unusual presentation and physical findings, along with subsequent MRI findings led to a diagnosis of mitochondrial myopathy, encephalopathy, lactic acidosis and stroke-like episodes (MELAS). MELAS is a mitochondrial disorder typified by the aforementioned symptoms, and is typically diagnosed in the first two decades of life.

Status of memory loss.

A 72-year-old woman presented with first onset of seizure with no prior history of cognitive dysfunction. EEG revealed focal non-convulsive status epilepticus. MRI brain showed a left temporal non-enhancing lesion. Temporal pole biopsy showed acute neuronal necrosis and astrocyte hyperplasia together with extensive amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Perivascular oligodendroglial hyperplasia was present. Postmortem examination revealed extensive plaque and tangle disease. Perivascular oligodendroglial hyperplasia was limited to the left temporal area. The presence of focal perivascular oligodendroglial hyperplasia in the left temporal cortex, combined with extensive plaque and tangle disease may have contributed to the focal status epilepticus in this patient. Although the presence of focal perivascular oligodendroglial hyperplasia has been reported in cases of temporal lobe epilepsy, it has not been reported as a cause of seizure in patients with Alzheimer's disease previously. Further studies for clinical-pathologic correlation would be required to confirm this hypothesis.

Catatonia - case report and review.

Catatonia is a neuro-psychiatric disorder that can occur in medical, psychiatric and drug-induced conditions but is often unrecognised. A 64 year-old woman was admitted to hospital for assessment of a significant deterioration in her ability to communicate and function normally so that she had become completely dependent on others for all activities of daily living for nearly three years. Outpatient medical and psychiatric assessments failed to clarify diagnosis. On admission to a general hospital, the neurology team initially believed she had a Parkinson's-like syndrome but after further investigation and comprehensive multidisciplinary assessment, including neuro-psychiatric review, she was diagnosed with catatonia. She was subsequently admitted to a psychiatric hospital where she received electro-convulsive therapy and changes to her psychotropic medication regimen. She responded well to treatment and within a short period of time was able to function independently again.