The biogeography of the Amazonian tree flora.

We describe the geographical variation in tree species composition across Amazonian forests and show how environmental conditions are associated with species turnover. Our analyses are based on 2023 forest inventory plots (1 ha) that provide abundance data for a total of 5188 tree species. Within-plot species composition reflected both local environmental conditions (especially soil nutrients and hydrology) and geographical regions. A broader-scale view of species turnover was obtained by interpolating the relative tree species abundances over Amazonia into 47,441 0.1-degree grid cells. Two main dimensions of spatial change in tree species composition were identified. The first was a gradient between western Amazonia at the Andean forelands (with young geology and relatively nutrient-rich soils) and central-eastern Amazonia associated with the Guiana and Brazilian Shields (with more ancient geology and poor soils). The second gradient was between the wet forests of the northwest and the drier forests in southern Amazonia. Isolines linking cells of similar composition crossed major Amazonian rivers, suggesting that tree species distributions are not limited by rivers. Even though some areas of relatively sharp species turnover were identified, mostly the tree species composition changed gradually over large extents, which does not support delimiting clear discrete biogeographic regions within Amazonia.

Biased-corrected richness estimates for the Amazonian tree flora.

Amazonian forests are extraordinarily diverse, but the estimated species richness is very much debated. Here, we apply an ensemble of parametric estimators and a novel technique that includes conspecific spatial aggregation to an extended database of forest plots with up-to-date taxonomy. We show that the species abundance distribution of Amazonia is best approximated by a logseries with aggregated individuals, where aggregation increases with rarity. By averaging several methods to estimate total richness, we confirm that over 15,000 tree species are expected to occur in Amazonia. We also show that using ten times the number of plots would result in an increase to just ~50% of those 15,000 estimated species. To get a more complete sample of all tree species, rigorous field campaigns may be needed but the number of trees in Amazonia will remain an estimate for years to come.

Rarity of monodominance in hyperdiverse Amazonian forests.

Tropical forests are known for their high diversity. Yet, forest patches do occur in the tropics where a single tree species is dominant. Such "monodominant" forests are known from all of the main tropical regions. For Amazonia, we sampled the occurrence of monodominance in a massive, basin-wide database of forest-inventory plots from the Amazon Tree Diversity Network (ATDN). Utilizing a simple defining metric of at least half of the trees ≥ 10 cm diameter belonging to one species, we found only a few occurrences of monodominance in Amazonia, and the phenomenon was not significantly linked to previously hypothesized life history traits such wood density, seed mass, ectomycorrhizal associations, or Rhizobium nodulation. In our analysis, coppicing (the formation of sprouts at the base of the tree or on roots) was the only trait significantly linked to monodominance. While at specific locales coppicing or ectomycorrhizal associations may confer a considerable advantage to a tree species and lead to its monodominance, very few species have these traits. Mining of the ATDN dataset suggests that monodominance is quite rare in Amazonia, and may be linked primarily to edaphic factors.

Species Distribution Modelling: Contrasting presence-only models with plot abundance data.

Species distribution models (SDMs) are widely used in ecology and conservation. Presence-only SDMs such as MaxEnt frequently use natural history collections (NHCs) as occurrence data, given their huge numbers and accessibility. NHCs are often spatially biased which may generate inaccuracies in SDMs. Here, we test how the distribution of NHCs and MaxEnt predictions relates to a spatial abundance model, based on a large plot dataset for Amazonian tree species, using inverse distance weighting (IDW). We also propose a new pipeline to deal with inconsistencies in NHCs and to limit the area of occupancy of the species. We found a significant but weak positive relationship between the distribution of NHCs and IDW for 66% of the species. The relationship between SDMs and IDW was also significant but weakly positive for 95% of the species, and sensitivity for both analyses was high. Furthermore, the pipeline removed half of the NHCs records. Presence-only SDM applications should consider this limitation, especially for large biodiversity assessments projects, when they are automatically generated without subsequent checking. Our pipeline provides a conservative estimate of a species' area of occupancy, within an area slightly larger than its extent of occurrence, compatible to e.g. IUCN red list assessments.

Estimating the global conservation status of more than 15,000 Amazonian tree species.

Estimates of extinction risk for Amazonian plant and animal species are rare and not often incorporated into land-use policy and conservation planning. We overlay spatial distribution models with historical and projected deforestation to show that at least 36% and up to 57% of all Amazonian tree species are likely to qualify as globally threatened under International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List criteria. If confirmed, these results would increase the number of threatened plant species on Earth by 22%. We show that the trends observed in Amazonia apply to trees throughout the tropics, and we predict that most of the world's >40,000 tropical tree species now qualify as globally threatened. A gap analysis suggests that existing Amazonian protected areas and indigenous territories will protect viable populations of most threatened species if these areas suffer no further degradation, highlighting the key roles that protected areas, indigenous peoples, and improved governance can play in preventing large-scale extinctions in the tropics in this century.

Hyperdominance in the Amazonian tree flora.

The vast extent of the Amazon Basin has historically restricted the study of its tree communities to the local and regional scales. Here, we provide empirical data on the commonness, rarity, and richness of lowland tree species across the entire Amazon Basin and Guiana Shield (Amazonia), collected in 1170 tree plots in all major forest types. Extrapolations suggest that Amazonia harbors roughly 16,000 tree species, of which just 227 (1.4%) account for half of all trees. Most of these are habitat specialists and only dominant in one or two regions of the basin. We discuss some implications of the finding that a small group of species--less diverse than the North American tree flora--accounts for half of the world's most diverse tree community.

La vegetación de las lajas en la región de Lomerío, Santa Cruz, Bolivia

Estudiamos la riqueza y composición de especies vegetales en tres afloramientos rocosos (lajas) en Lomerío, Santa Cruz, Bolivia, dentro de un bosque seco tropical. Determinamos la variación de la vegetación desde el centro hacia el borde de las lajas, además que caracterizamos algunas especies propias de este hábitat. La riqueza de especies varía entre lajas, pero, en forma conjunta esta riqueza puede ser mayor a otros tipos de bosque aledaños a las lajas. La riqueza de especies fue mayor en el borde que en el centro de las lajas. En el borde de las lajas, la riqueza de especies varia según la distancia al centro de las lajas; la mayor riqueza se encontró en los primeros 10 m del borde. En el centro de las lajas Deuterocohnia meziana Kuntze ex Mez fue la especie más dominante, mientras que las especies más abundantes fueron D. meziana y Monvillea kroenleinii R. Kiesling. En el borde de las lajas Anthurium plowmanii Croat, Pseudananas sagenarius (Arruda) Camargo, Urera baccifera L., Casearia gossypiosperma Briq., Aspidosperma rigidum Rusby y Cereus tacuaralensis Cárdenas fueron las especies más abundantes. De acuerdo a las clases diamétricas, se puede considerar que existe regeneración natural para las principales especies arbóreas. Las lajas son hábitats muy importantes que deben considerarse dentro del manejo forestal de bosques naturales adyacentes, puesto que constituyen lugares de alta diversidad y endemismo de plantas y animales y que son refugios y fuentes de alimentación de muchas especies de animales.

Plant species richness and composition was studied on three rock outcrops (lajas) in a tropical dry forest in Lomerio, Bolivia. The variation in vegetation was determined from the center to the periphery of the influence of the rock outcrops and plant species indicators of rock outcrop habitats were identified. Species richness varied among lajas, but was higher in rock outcrop habitats compared to adjoining forests. Species richness was highest on the periphery of the rock outcrops compared to the vegetated islands on the center of the outcrop. The highest species richness was encountered 10 m from the vegetated border on the periphery of the pure rock surface. Deuterocohnia meziana Kuntze ex Mez was the most dominant (highest ground cover) plant species colonizing the center of the rock outcrops, while D. meziana and Monvillea kroenleinii R. Kiesling were the most abundant. On the periphery of the laja Anthurium plowmanii Croat, Pseudananas sagenarius (Arruda) Camargo, Urera baccifera L., Casearia gossypiosperma Briq., Aspidosperma rigidum Rusby and Cereus tacuaralensis Cárdenas were the most dominant species. Regeneration appears to be occurring for the principal tree species. Lajas are key habitats that should be considered in the natural management of forests in which they are imbedded. They constitute areas of high biodiversity and endemic species and are refuges and feeding areas for many animal species.