Cytomegalovirus Exposure in the Elderly Does Not Reduce CD8 T Cell Repertoire Diversity.

With age, the immune system becomes less effective, causing increased susceptibility to infection. Chronic CMV infection further impairs immune function and is associated with increased mortality in the elderly. CMV exposure elicits massive CD8+ T cell clonal expansions and diminishes the cytotoxic T cell response to subsequent infections, leading to the hypothesis that to maintain homeostasis, T cell clones are expelled from the repertoire, reducing T cell repertoire diversity and diminishing the ability to combat new infections. However, in humans, the impact of CMV infection on the structure and diversity of the underlying T cell repertoire remains uncharacterized. Using TCR ß-chain immunosequencing, we observed that the proportion of the peripheral blood T cell repertoire composed of the most numerous 0.1% of clones is larger in the CMV seropositive and gradually increases with age. We found that the T cell repertoire in the elderly grows to accommodate CMV-driven clonal expansions while preserving its underlying diversity and clonal structure. Our observations suggest that the maintenance of large CMV-reactive T cell clones throughout life does not compromise the underlying repertoire. Alternatively, we propose that the diminished immunity in elderly individuals with CMV is due to alterations in cellular function rather than a reduction in CD8+ T cell repertoire diversity.

Targeted single molecule mutation detection with massively parallel sequencing.

Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies have transformed genomic research and have the potential to revolutionize clinical medicine. However, the background error rates of sequencing instruments and limitations in targeted read coverage have precluded the detection of rare DNA sequence variants by NGS. Here we describe a method, termed CypherSeq, which combines double-stranded barcoding error correction and rolling circle amplification (RCA)-based target enrichment to vastly improve NGS-based rare variant detection. The CypherSeq methodology involves the ligation of sample DNA into circular vectors, which contain double-stranded barcodes for computational error correction and adapters for library preparation and sequencing. CypherSeq is capable of detecting rare mutations genome-wide as well as those within specific target genes via RCA-based enrichment. We demonstrate that CypherSeq is capable of correcting errors incurred during library preparation and sequencing to reproducibly detect mutations down to a frequency of 2.4 × 10(-7) per base pair, and report the frequency and spectra of spontaneous and ethyl methanesulfonate-induced mutations across the Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome.

CMV reactivation drives posttransplant T-cell reconstitution and results in defects in the underlying TCRß repertoire.

Although cytomegalovirus (CMV) reactivation has long been implicated in posttransplant immune dysfunction, the molecular mechanisms that drive this phenomenon remain undetermined. To address this, we combined multiparameter flow cytometric analysis and T-cell subpopulation sorting with high-throughput sequencing of the T-cell repertoire, to produce a thorough evaluation of the impact of CMV reactivation on T-cell reconstitution after unrelated-donor hematopoietic stem cell transplant. We observed that CMV reactivation drove a >50-fold specific expansion of Granzyme B(high)/CD28(low)/CD57(high)/CD8(+) effector memory T cells (Tem) and resulted in a linked contraction of all naive T cells, including CD31(+)/CD4(+) putative thymic emigrants. T-cell receptor ß (TCRß) deep sequencing revealed a striking contraction of CD8(+) Tem diversity due to CMV-specific clonal expansions in reactivating patients. In addition to querying the topography of the expanding CMV-specific T-cell clones, deep sequencing allowed us, for the first time, to exhaustively evaluate the underlying TCR repertoire. Our results reveal new evidence for significant defects in the underlying CD8 Tem TCR repertoire in patients who reactivate CMV, providing the first molecular evidence that, in addition to driving expansion of virus-specific cells, CMV reactivation has a detrimental impact on the integrity and heterogeneity of the rest of the T-cell repertoire. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT01012492.

Antiviral effects of autologous CD4 T cells genetically modified with a conditionally replicating lentiviral vector expressing long antisense to HIV.

We report the safety and tolerability of 87 infusions of lentiviral vector­modified autologous CD4 T cells (VRX496-T; trade name, Lexgenleucel-T) in 17 HIV patients with well-controlled viremia. Antiviral effects were studied during analytic treatment interruption in a subset of 13 patients. VRX496-T was associated with a decrease in viral load set points in 6 of 8 subjects (P = .08). In addition, A → G transitions were enriched in HIV sequences after infusion, which is consistent with a model in which transduced CD4 T cells exert antisense-mediated genetic pressure on HIV during infection. Engraftment of vector-modified CD4 T cells was measured in gut-associated lymphoid tissue and was correlated with engraftment in blood. The engraftment half-life in the blood was approximately 5 weeks, with stable persistence in some patients for up to 5 years. Conditional replication of VRX496 was detected periodically through 1 year after infusion. No evidence of clonal selection of lentiviral vector­transduced T cells or integration enrichment near oncogenes was detected. This is the first demonstration that gene-modified cells can exert genetic pressure on HIV. We conclude that gene-modified T cells have the potential to decrease the fitness of HIV-1 and conditionally replicative lentiviral vectors have a promising safety profile in T cells.

Dynamic regulation of HIV-1 mRNA populations analyzed by single-molecule enrichment and long-read sequencing.

Alternative RNA splicing greatly expands the repertoire of proteins encoded by genomes. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) is attractive for studying alternative splicing because of the efficiency and low cost per base, but short reads typical of NGS only report mRNA fragments containing one or few splice junctions. Here, we used single-molecule amplification and long-read sequencing to study the HIV-1 provirus, which is only 9700 bp in length, but encodes nine major proteins via alternative splicing. Our data showed that the clinical isolate HIV-1(89.6) produces at least 109 different spliced RNAs, including a previously unappreciated ∼1 kb class of messages, two of which encode new proteins. HIV-1 message populations differed between cell types, longitudinally during infection, and among T cells from different human donors. These findings open a new window on a little studied aspect of HIV-1 replication, suggest therapeutic opportunities and provide advanced tools for the study of alternative splicing.

Context-specific synthetic T cell promoters from assembled transcriptional elements.

Genetic engineering of human lymphocytes for therapeutic applications is constrained by a lack of transgene transcriptional control, resulting in a compromised therapeutic index. Incomplete understanding of transcriptional logic limits the rational design of contextually responsive genetic modules1. Here, we juxtaposed rationally curated transcriptional response element (TRE) oligonucleotides by random concatemerization to generate a library from which we selected context-specific inducible synthetic promoters (iSynPros). Through functional selection, we screened an iSynPro library for "IF-THEN" logic-gated transcriptional responses in human CD8+ T cells expressing a 4-1BB second generation chimeric antigen receptor (CAR). iSynPros exhibiting stringent off-states in quiescent T cells and CAR activation-dependent transcriptional responsiveness were cloned and subjected to TRE composition and pattern analysis, as well as performance in regulating candidate antitumor potency enhancement modules. These data reveal synthetic TRE grammar can mediate logic-gated transgene transcription in human T cells that, when applied to CAR T cell engineering, enhance potency and improve therapeutic indices.

HIV sequence variation associated with env antisense adoptive T-cell therapy in the hNSG mouse model.

The first use of lentiviral vectors in humans involved transduction of mature T-cells with an human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-derived env antisense (envAS) vector to protect cells from HIV infection. In that study, only a minority of the patient T-cell population could be gene-modified, raising the question of whether the altered cells could affect replicating HIV populations. We investigated this using humanized NOD/SCID IL-2Rgamma(null) (hNSG) mice reconstituted with approximately 4-11% envAS-modified human T-cells. Mice were challenged with HIV-1(NL4-3), which has an env perfectly complementary to envAS, or with HIV-1(BaL), which has a divergent env. No differences were seen in viral titer between mice that received envAS-modified cells and control mice that did not. Using 454/Roche pyrosequencing, we analyzed the mutational spectrum in HIV populations in serum-from 33 mice we recovered 84,074 total reads comprising 31,290 unique sequence variants. We found enrichment of A-to-G transitions and deletions in envAS-treated mice, paralleling a previous tissue culture study where most target cells contained envAS, even though minority of cells were envAS-modified here. Unexpectedly, this enrichment was only detected after the challenge with HIV-1(BaL), where the viral genome would form an imperfect duplex with envAS, and not HIV-1(NL4-3), where a perfectly matched duplex would form.

EGFR806-CAR T cells selectively target a tumor-restricted EGFR epitope in glioblastoma.

Targeting solid tumor antigens with chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy requires tumor specificity and tolerance toward variability in antigen expression levels. Given the relative paucity of unique cell surface proteins on tumor cells for CAR targeting, we have focused on identifying tumor-specific epitopes that arise as a consequence of target protein posttranslational modification. We designed a CAR using a mAb806-based binder, which recognizes tumor-specific untethered EGFR. The mAb806 epitope is also exposed in the EGFRvIII variant transcript. By varying spacer domain elements of the CAR, we structurally tuned the CAR to recognize low densities of EGFR representative of non-gene amplified expression levels in solid tumors. The appropriately tuned short-spacer 2nd generation EGFR806-CAR T cells showed efficient in vitro cytokine secretion and glioma cell lysis, which was competitively blocked by a short peptide encompassing the mAb806 binding site. Unlike the nonselective Erbitux-based CAR, EGFR806-CAR T cells did not target primary human fetal brain astrocytes expressing wild-type EGFR, but showed a similar level of activity compared to Erbitux-CAR when the tumor-specific EGFRvIII transcript variant was overexpressed in astrocytes. EGFR806-CAR T cells successfully treated orthotopic U87 glioma implants in NSG mice, with 50% of animals surviving to 90 days. With additional IL-2 support, all tumors were eradicate without recurrence after 90 days. In a novel human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived teratoma xenograft model, EGFR806-CAR T cells infiltrated but were not activated in EGFR+ epidermal cell nests as assessed by Granzyme B expression. These results indicate that EGFR806-CAR T cells effectively and selectively target EGFR-expressing tumor cells.

Correlated evolution of positions within mammalian cis elements.

Transcriptional regulation critically depends on proper interactions between transcription factors (TF) and their cognate DNA binding sites. The widely used model of TF-DNA binding--the positional weight matrix (PWM)--presumes independence between positions within the binding site. However, there is evidence to show that the independence assumption may not always hold, and the extent of interposition dependence is not completely known. We hypothesize that the interposition dependence should partly be manifested as correlated evolution at the positions. We report a maximum-likelihood (ML) approach to infer correlated evolution at any two positions within a PWM, based on a multiple alignment of 5 mammalian genomes. Application to a genome-wide set of putative cis elements in human promoters reveals a prevalence of correlated evolution within cis elements. We found that the interdependence between two positions decreases with increasing distance between the positions. The interdependent positions tend to be evolutionarily more constrained and moreover, the dependence patterns are relatively similar across structurally related transcription factors. Although some of the detected mutational dependencies may be due to context-dependent genomic hyper-mutation, notably CG to TG, the majority is likely due to context-dependent preferences for specific nucleotide combinations within the cis elements. Patterns of evolution at individual nucleotide positions within mammalian TF binding sites are often significantly correlated, suggesting interposition dependence. The proposed methodology is also applicable to other classes of non-coding functional elements. A detailed investigation of mutational dependencies within specific motifs could reveal preferred nucleotide combinations that may help refine the DNA binding models.

Switching between raltegravir resistance pathways analyzed by deep sequencing.

OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to analyze the pathways leading to resistance of HIV to the integrase (IN) inhibitor raltegravir (RAL). DESIGN: Three HIV-infected individuals exhibiting RAL resistance pathway switching were characterized using longitudinal analysis of viral samples from plasma. METHODS: 454/Roche pyrosequencing was used to generate approximately 74,000 sequence reads from the integrase coding region. Effects of error were controlled by denoising with Pyronoise, and by comparison to approximately 142,000 control reads from HIV(NL4-3). Viral lineages were modeled quantitatively using viral serial pathway analysis (vSPA). RESULTS: All three patients showed transitions from the N155H pathway to the Q148H/G140S pathway. Analysis with vSPA revealed complex pathways to the final genotype, probably involving both de-novo mutation and recombination. No reads contained both the N155H and Q148H drug resistance mutations (DRMs), indicating that the double mutant is not a prominent intermediate, consistent with low fitness. To characterize possible drug-resistant variants circulating prior to therapy, we sequenced approximately 70,000 reads from samples collected prior to initiating treatment. Although some preexisting drug-resistant variants were detected, N155H, the first major DRM present after initiating RAL therapy, was not detected. CONCLUSION: The main DRMs are present at very low levels if at all prior to initiating therapy. We also outline general methods for deep sequence analysis of DRMs in longitudinal HIV samples.