The Relationship between Age at Initiation of Regular Drinking of Alcohol and Viral Suppression Status, and Depression Symptoms Among People Living with HIV in South-Western Uganda.

Alcohol use is an important factor in achieving and maintaining viral suppression and optimal mental health among persons with HIV (PWH), however, the effect of age at first regular drinking on viral suppression and depression remains poorly understood. Here, using secondary data from the Alcohol Drinkers' Exposure to Preventive Therapy for Tuberculosis (ADEPT-T) study, we used logistic regression analyses to explore whether there is an association between age at first regular drinking and viral suppression (< 40 copies/ml), or presence of depressive symptoms (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression, CES-D ≥ 16) among 262 PWH. The median age at first regular drinking was 20.5 years (IQR: 10), with high proportions starting under age 12 (12.2%) and as teens (13.4%). The majority had an undetectable viral load (91.7%) and 11% had symptoms of probable depression. We found no significant association between age at first regular drinking and viral suppression (i.e., child (aOR = 0.76 95%CI: 0.18, 3.26), adolescent (aOR = 0.74 95%CI: 0.18, 2.97) and young adult (aOR = 1.27 95%CI: 0.40, 3.97)) nor with depressive symptoms (i.e., child (aOR = 0.72 95%CI: 0.19, 2.83), adolescent (aOR = 0.59 95%CI: 0.14, 2.50) and young adult (aOR = 0.57 95%CI: 0.22, 1.53)). Age at first regular drinking among PWH did not appear to be associated with either viral suppression or the presence of depressive symptoms, suggesting interventions may best be focused on the harmful effects of current alcohol use.

HIV, Social Networks, and Loneliness among Older Adults in Uganda.

Loneliness among older adults has been identified as a major public health problem. Yet little is known about loneliness, or the potential role of social networks in explaining loneliness, among older people with HIV (PWH) in sub-Saharan Africa, where 70% of PWH reside. To explore this issue, we analyzed data from 599 participants enrolled in the Quality of Life and Ageing with HIV in Rural Uganda study, including older adults with HIV in ambulatory care and a comparator group of people without HIV of similar age and gender. The 3-item UCLA Loneliness Scale was used to measure loneliness, and HIV status was the primary explanatory variable. The study found no statistically significant correlation between loneliness and HIV status. However, individuals with HIV had smaller households, less physical and financial support, and were less socially integrated compared to those without HIV. In multivariable logistic regressions, loneliness was more likely among individuals who lived alone (aOR:3.38, 95% CI:1.47-7.76) and less likely among those who were married (aOR:0.34, 95% CI:0.22-0.53) and had a higher level of social integration (aOR:0.86, 95% CI: 0.79-0.92). Despite having smaller social networks and less support, older adults with HIV had similar levels of loneliness as those without HIV, which may be attributed to resiliency and access to HIV-related health services among individuals with HIV. Nonetheless, further research is necessary to better understand the mechanisms involved.

The 2022 symposium on dementia and brain aging in low- and middle-income countries: Highlights on research, diagnosis, care, and impact.

Two of every three persons living with dementia reside in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The projected increase in global dementia rates is expected to affect LMICs disproportionately. However, the majority of global dementia care costs occur in high-income countries (HICs), with dementia research predominantly focusing on HICs. This imbalance necessitates LMIC-focused research to ensure that characterization of dementia accurately reflects the involvement and specificities of diverse populations. Development of effective preventive, diagnostic, and therapeutic approaches for dementia in LMICs requires targeted, personalized, and harmonized efforts. Our article represents timely discussions at the 2022 Symposium on Dementia and Brain Aging in LMICs that identified the foremost opportunities to advance dementia research, differential diagnosis, use of neuropsychometric tools, awareness, and treatment options. We highlight key topics discussed at the meeting and provide future recommendations to foster a more equitable landscape for dementia prevention, diagnosis, care, policy, and management in LMICs. HIGHLIGHTS: Two-thirds of persons with dementia live in LMICs, yet research and costs are skewed toward HICs. LMICs expect dementia prevalence to more than double, accompanied by socioeconomic disparities. The 2022 Symposium on Dementia in LMICs addressed advances in research, diagnosis, prevention, and policy. The Nairobi Declaration urges global action to enhance dementia outcomes in LMICs.

Association of severe malaria with cognitive and behavioural outcomes in low- and middle-income countries: a meta-analysis and systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Malaria affects 24 million children globally, resulting in nearly 500,000 child deaths annually in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Recent studies have provided evidence that severe malaria infection results in sustained impairment in cognition and behaviour among young children; however, a formal meta-analysis has not been published. The objective was to assess the association between severe malaria infection with cognitive and behavioural outcomes among children living in LMICs. METHODS: Six online bibliographic databases were searched and reviewed in November 2022. Studies included involved children < 18 years of age living in LMICs with active or past severe malaria infection and measured cognitive and/or behaviour outcomes. The quality of studies was assessed. Definitions of severe malaria included cerebral malaria, severe malarial anaemia, and author-defined severe malaria. Results from all studies were qualitatively summarized. For studies with relevant data on attention, learning, memory, language, internalizing behaviour and externalizing behaviour, results were pooled and a meta-analysis was performed. A random-effects model was used across included cohorts, yielding a standardized mean difference between the severe malaria group and control group. RESULTS: Out of 3,803 initial records meeting the search criteria, 24 studies were included in the review, with data from 14 studies eligible for meta-analysis inclusion. Studies across sub-Saharan Africa assessed 11 cohorts of children from pre-school to school age. Of all the studies, composite measures of cognition were the most affected areas of development. Overall, attention, memory, and behavioural problems were domains most commonly found to have lower scores in children with severe malaria. Meta-analysis revealed that children with severe malaria had worse scores compared to children without malaria in attention (standardized mean difference (SMD) -0.68, 95% CI -1.26 to -0.10), memory (SMD -0.52, 95% CI -0.99 to -0.06), and externalizing behavioural problems (SMD 0.45, 95% CI 0.13-0.78). CONCLUSION: Severe malaria is associated with worse neuropsychological outcomes for children living in LMICs, specifically in attention, memory, and externalizing behaviours. More research is needed to identify the long-term implications of these findings. Further interventions are needed to prevent cognitive and behavioural problems after severe malaria infection. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This systematic review was registered under PROSPERO: CRD42020154777.

Differences in Reasons for Late Presentation to HIV Care in Uganda Among Men and Women.

Late presentation to HIV care, i.e., presenting with < 200 CD4 cells/mL, is associated with higher mortality and worse outcomes. Despite that, a quarter of people living with HIV in Uganda still present late to care. We surveyed Ugandans living with HIV who enrolled in clinic ≤ 90 days prior. We compared groups who presented 'late' with CD4 < 200 and 'early' with CD4 > 350, stratifying by sex. We found men who presented late had higher externalized stigma than early presenters. Thirty-six percent of the entire cohort were depressed. Social support was stronger in late presenters versus early, although weak overall. Social support was inversely correlated with depression, with social support dropping as depression increased. Interventions to improve clinic privacy, reduce stigma, improve social support, and help women disclose their HIV status to male partners are needed to reduce late presentation to HIV care.

"Walking the Journey Together": Creating a unique learning module in provider-patient communication for the care of epilepsy in Uganda.

OBJECTIVE: This report documents the creation of a practical communication skills module about epilepsy care, specifically targeted at first-line care providers who treat patients with epilepsy in Uganda. METHODS: Our team conducted semi-structured interviews, utilizing Zoom video conferencing, with Ugandan physicians specializing in epilepsy care. Our interview guide promoted a semi-structured conversational interview that explored aspects related to developing a patient-provider relationship, how epilepsy is described in a culturally appropriate manner, exploration of alternative treatments, the impact of the stigma of epilepsy, and facilitators and barriers to antiepileptic drug treatment adherence. Each interview was then transcribed, and an inductive thematic content analysis approach was utilized to facilitate the development of thematic communication and care subcategories. The resulting PowerPoint presentation included numerous short audio clips of our Ugandan experts suggesting effective ways of communicating with patients and their families. RESULTS: Our interviews with experts yielded valuable results to customize the WHO mhGAP v2.0 training program to be culturally relevant and effective in Uganda. The educational content consisted of topic summaries integrated with audio clips taken directly from our interviews with the Ugandan providers. Six themes emerged that would serve as the outline for the communication module we co-created with our Ugandan colleagues: The six major themes of the module included: (1) Greeting the patient, (2) Getting the story, (3) Traditional healers, (4) Stigma of epilepsy, (5) Explaining epilepsy, and (6) Treatment adherence. CONCLUSIONS: The communications skills teaching module addresses the most critical aspects of communicating with patients and families living with epilepsy. The format of the presentation, which includes the written and spoken words of experts in epilepsy care, provides a practical approach to the provider-patient interaction, and confronts the stigma associated with this disease. This formatting highlights an effective way for international groups to co-create content in a culturally effective manner.

Feasibility of screening for cognitive impairment among older persons and referral by community health workers in Wakiso district, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: In Uganda, cognitive impairment in older persons aged ≥ 60 years is often undiagnosed due to inadequate appreciation of the condition compounded with limitations of trained human resource able to conduct appropriate cognitive evaluations. Use of Community Health Workers (CHWs) especially in hard-to-reach communities can be an important link for older persons to the health facilities where they can receive adequate evaluations and interventions for cognitive challenges. The aim of the study was to assess the feasibility of screening for cognitive impairment among older persons and referral by CHWs in Wakiso district, Uganda. METHODS: This was a sequential explanatory mixed methods study. The CHWs received a one-day training on causes, signs and symptoms, and management of cognitive impairment and screened older persons ≥ 60 years for cognitive impairment using the Alzheimer's Disease scale 8 (AD8). Psychiatric clinical officers (PCOs) administered the AD8 and the Mini Mental State Examination to the older persons after assessment by the CHWs who then referred them for appropriate clinical care. We conducted Kappa statistic for agreement between the CHWs and PCOs and compared raw scores of the CHWs to Experts scores using Bland Altman and pair plots and corresponding analyses. We also conducted focus group discussions for the older persons, caregivers and CHWs. RESULTS: We collected data from 385 older persons. We involved 12 CHWs and 75% were females, majority were married (58.3%) with at least a secondary education (66.7%). There was 96.4% (CI 94.5-98.2%) agreement between PCOs and CHWs in identifying cognitive impairment with the PCOs identifying 54/385 (14.0: 95%CI 10.7-17.9%) older persons compared to 58/385 (15.1: 95%CI 11.6-19.0%) identified by CHWs. Of the 58 identified to have cognitive impairment by the CHWs, 93.1% were referred for care. The average difference between the score of the expert and that of the CHW was - 0.042 with a 95% CI of -1.335 to 1.252. Corresponding Bland Altman and pair plots showed high agreement between the measurements although CHWs scored higher values with increasing scores. CONCLUSION: CHWs can be trained to identify and refer older persons with cognitive impairment in the communities.

Cultural beliefs and practices on perinatal death: a qualitative study among the Lango community in Northern Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Perinatal death has profound psychosocial effects on women and their families. Sociocultural contexts influence the burden, rituals and bereaved's support. Little is known about cultural beliefs and practices related to perinatal death. This study explored the cultural perspectives of the Lango community on perinatal death. METHODS: This study utilised a focused ethnographic design anchored on a symbolic interactionist framework to understand the meanings attached to beliefs and practices on stillbirth or neonatal death among the Lango community in Lira District, Northern Uganda. Participants were sampled purposively for FGD while key informants were identified through snowballing technique. Data were audio recorded in Lango, transcribed, and later translated, a codebook was developed and data entered into Atlas. ti version 8.4.26 and then coded. It was analysed both deductively and inductively into themes. RESULTS: Stillbirth and early neonatal death both attract similar rituals as would an older child. Burial is not rushed and is attended by family members and close friends. Stillbirths and children that die before naming are buried without names. Bereaved families are comforted and encouraged about future pregnancies. Currently, Lango associates the deaths to biomedical explanations such as teenage pregnancies, inadequate pregnancy care, health system challenges and poor health-seeking behaviour, unlike previously when they were attributed to consequences of unacceptable social behaviours, superstitious beliefs and witchcraft. Antenatal care and health facility childbirths are currently preferred over traditional practices for good pregnancy outcomes. CONCLUSION: Stillbirth or early neonatal death is viewed as the death of a child, different from other settings. Thus, rituals are performed to honour, create memory, and maintain the connection with deceased babies. Bereaved parents are supported. Health care workers need to provide culturally sensitive support to parents after perinatal loss. The prevailing beliefs of perinatal death cause in terms of biomedical explanations consistent with known determinants and preference for health facility care for prevention creates an opportunity for improving perinatal health.

Equipping undergraduate medical and nursing students with elderly health care assessment skills at Makerere University, College of Health Sciences, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Elderly health care training and aging science remain the least prioritized discipline of medical education in many African countries. With scant scientific evidence on elderly health care in low-income countries, coupled with limited exposure to elderly health care training, this project aimed to equip undergraduate health professional students with elderly health care assessment skills and research through an online course and a clinical placement. METHODS: Students (3rd year) underwent online elderly health care training through the Alison courses published by the Advanced Learning Academy in Ireland. The students were then subjected to an online exam with a pass mark of 80%. Students were also trained on standard elderly health care assessment tools through a one-day session. For practical skills on data collection, each student assessed 15 elderly patients at the Mulago National Referral Hospital Assessment Centre. All tools once filled in were assessed for completion. A one-day reflection session was held with students, faculty and the project leads to share findings from the various tools used to assess elderly individuals. The students shared their experiences and provided feedback on the online training as well as the hardships they may have experienced while administering the tools. A certificate of participation was provided to the students at the end of the project. RESULTS: All the students (10) gained knowledge on elderly assessment skills, the impact of aging on various body systems, and how to manage common occurrences among elderly individuals. The average score in the post-exam was 82% (standard deviation ± 2.01). All students (10) reported having had this as their first training on the assessment of functionality among elderly individuals. CONCLUSIONS: The students gained knowledge of elderly health assessments as well as the impact of aging on various body systems. They also gained insight into how to care for the elderly holistically with an added understanding of how to manage spinal and traumatic brain injuries.

"She gives it to her child who doesn't even talk": a qualitative exploration of alcohol and drug use among primary school-age children in Uganda.

BACKGROUND: There is little research on alcohol and other drugs (AOD) use by school-age children in low-resource settings like Uganda. Including the voices of children in research can inform prevention and early intervention efforts for those at risk of AOD use. The aim of this study was to understand the perspectives of children aged 6 to 13 years regarding AOD in Uganda. METHODS: This qualitative study was conducted in Mbale district, Uganda from February to March 2020. Eight focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with 56 primary school-age children, stratified by age (6-9 and 10-13 years), sex (male and female), and school status (in school and out of school). All FGDs were conducted in either Lumasaaba or Luganda. The FGDs were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and translated into English. Data were coded, and overarching themes were identified using thematic framework analysis. RESULTS: Two themes identified were (1) Children's perceptions and experiences with AODs. The participants understood alcohol by its consistency, colour, odour, and by brand/logo. They described the types and quantities of AOD consumed by school-age children, brewing processes for homemade alcoholic drinks, and short and long-term consequences of the use of alcohol. (2) Contributing factors to childhood drinking included: Stress relief for children who experienced multiple adversities (orphaned, poverty-stricken, and hailing from broken homes), fitting in with friends, influence from families, and media exposure that made alcohol look cool. Children would start drinking at an early age) or were given alcohol by their parents, sometimes before they could start talking. In the community, alcohol and other drugs were cheap and available and children could drink from anywhere, including in the classroom. CONCLUSIONS: Children eligible for primary education in Uganda can easily access and use AOD. Several factors were identified as contributing to alcohol and other drug use among children, including availability and accessibility, advertising, lack of parental awareness and supervision, peer influence, adverse childhood experiences, socioeconomic factors, and cultural norms. There is a need for multi-sectoral action for awareness of childhood AOD use and deliberate consideration of children in the planning, design, and implementation of research, policies, and programs for prevention and early intervention.

Suubi + Adherence4Youth: a study protocol to optimize the Suubi Intervention for Adherence to HIV treatment for youth living with HIV in Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Suubi is an evidenced based multi-component intervention that targets psychosocial and economic hardships to improve ART adherence, viral suppression, mental health, family financial stability, and family cohesion for adolescents living with HIV (ALHIV) in Uganda. Suubi was originally tested as a combined package of four components: 1) Financial Literacy Training; 2) incentivized matched Youth Savings Accounts with income-generating activities; 3) a manualized and visual-based intervention for ART adherence and stigma reduction; and 4) engagement with HIV treatment-experienced role models. However, it is unknown if each component in Suubi had a positive effect, how the components interacted, or if fewer components could have produced equivalent effects. Hence, the overall goal of this new study is to identify the most impactful and sustainable economic and psychosocial components across 48 health clinics in Uganda. METHODS: A total of 576 ALHIV (aged 11-17 years at enrollment) will be recruited from 48 clinics and each clinic will be randomized to one of 16 study conditions. Each condition represents every possible combination of the 4 components noted above. Assessments will be conducted at baseline, 12, 24, 36 and 48- months post-intervention initiation. Using the multi-phase optimization strategy (MOST), we will identify the optimal combination of components and associated costs for viral suppression, as well as test key mediators and moderators of the component-viral suppression relationship. DISCUSSION: The study is a shift in the paradigm of research to use new thinking to build/un-pack highly efficacious interventions that lead to new scientific knowledge in terms of understanding what drives an intervention's success and how to iterate on them in ways that are more efficient, affordable and scalable. The study advances intervention science for HIV care outcomes globally. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This project was registered at clinicaltrials.gov (NCT05600621) on October, 31, 2022. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05600621.

The benefits of care: treated HIV infection and health-related quality of life among older-aged people in Uganda.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study is to explore how HIV care affects health-related quality of life (HRQoL) among older people in Uganda. METHODS: We enrolled older-aged (≥49 years) people with HIV receiving HIV care and treatment, along with age- and sex-similar people without HIV. We measured health-related quality of life using the EQ-5D-3L scale. RESULTS: People with HIV (n = 298) and people without HIV (n = 302) were similar in median age (58.4 vs. 58.5 years), gender, and number of comorbidities. People with HIV had higher self-reported health status (b = 7.0; 95% confidence interval [CI], 4.2-9.7), higher EQ-5D utility index (b = 0.05; 95% CI, 0.02-0.07), and were more likely to report no problems with self-care (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 2.0; 95% CI, 1.2-3.3) or pain/discomfort (AOR = 1.8, 95% CI, 1.3-2.8). Relationships between HIV serostatus and health-related quality of life differed by gender, but not age. CONCLUSIONS: Older people with HIV receiving care and treatment reported higher health-related quality of life than people without HIV in Uganda. Access to primary care through HIV programs and/or social network mobilization may explain this difference, but further research is needed to elucidate the mechanisms.

Barriers to HIV care in Uganda and implications for universal test-and-treat: a qualitative study.

Achieving universal HIV test-and-treat will require targeted interventions for those with worse outcomes, including advanced HIV. We conducted qualitative, semi-structured interviews with healthcare workers (HCWs) and people living with HIV (PLWH) at 5 HIV clinics in Kampala, Uganda, to understand barriers to care. PLWH enrolled started/restarted on HIV treatment ≤3 months prior. PLWH were grouped as 1) "ART-experienced" or those restarted therapy after ≥12 months off, 2) ART naïve CD4 count <100 cells/uL "late presenters" or 3) ART naïve CD4 count >350 cells/uL "early presenters". In-depth interviews were conducted in Luganda, translated, and transcribed verbatim. Between May and August 2017, 58 PLWH and 20 HCWs were interviewed. High stigma and low social support emerged as themes among all as barriers to care. Alcohol abuse was a barrier for men. Fear of domestic violence and abandonment were barriers for women, limiting disclosure of their HIV status to their male partners. Clinic factors such as rapport with staff, distance, efficiency, and privacy impacted care. Future interventions to decrease delayed ART initiation should target stigma and social support. Assisted disclosure, contact tracing, and alcohol abuse treatment should be implemented. Strengthening client support, reducing wait times, and increasing privacy assurances would improve care-seeking behaviors.

The association of cognitive impairment with quality of life and functional impairment in Ugandan first-episode psychosis patients: a cross sectional study.

INTRODUCTION: Cognitive impairment is common in first-episode psychosis patients and often associated with poor quality of life and functional impairment. However, most literature on this association is from high income countries and not low resource countries like Uganda. We aimed to determine the association between cognitive impairment with quality of life and functional impairment in Ugandan first-episode psychosis patients. METHODS: At Butabika national psychiatric hospital of Uganda, we enrolled 94 first-episode psychosis patients aged 18-60 years with a confirmed first-episode of psychosis and no previous treatment with antipsychotic medication. Neuropsychological assessment was performed using the MATRICS consensus cognitive battery (MCCB). Quality of life and functional impairment were assessed using the brief version of the World Health Organisation Quality of Life scale (WHOQOL-BREF) and the MINI International Neuropsychiatric Inventory (MINI) respectively. Linear regression analyses determined the association between impairment in different cognitive domains with various quality of life and functional impairment domains while controlling for age, gender and level of education. RESULTS: High scores in the reasoning and problem solving cognitive domain were associated with better quality of life in the psychological domain of WHOQOL-BREF (p = 0.029). For functional impairment, high cognitive scores in the domains of speed of processing (p = 0.018), reasoning and problem solving (p = 0.015), working memory (p = 0.017) and visual learning and memory (p = 0.002) were associated with psychosis "having a greater impact on other members of the family" on the MINI. Higher scores in the social cognition domain were associated with "less aggressive and disruptive behaviour" (p = 0.003). CONCLUSION: Cognitive impairment in Ugandan first-episode psychotic patients is associated with both poorer quality of life and functional impairment. Remediation of cognitive function may be a plausible intervention to improve outcomes in Ugandan first-episode psychosis patients.

"Your heart keeps bleeding": lived experiences of parents with a perinatal death in Northern Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Worldwide, two million babies are stillborn and 1.8 million babies die before completing seven days of life. Approximately 4% of pregnant women in Uganda experience perinatal death. The response following a perinatal death tends to be socio-culturally constructed. Investigating the unique personal experiences of parents from a low-income setting with unique cultural beliefs and practices is crucial for the design and implementation of appropriate interventions. OBJECTIVE: To describe the lived experiences of parents following perinatal death in Lira district, Northern Uganda. METHODS: A qualitative study was carried out drawing on the tenets of descriptive phenomenology. We conducted 32 in-depth interviews in Lira district, Northern Uganda between August 2019 and September 2020 with 18 women and 14 men who had experienced a stillbirth or an early neonatal death within the preceding 2 years. Participants were selected from different families and interviewed. A local IRB approved the study. All in-depth interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, translated, and data were analysed using a content thematic approach. Key findings were discussed based on Worden's Four Tasks of Mourning theory. RESULTS: The themes that emerged from the analyses included reaction to the perinatal loss and suggestions for support. The participants' immediate reactions were pain, confusion, and feelings of guilt which were aggravated by the unsupportive behaviour of health care providers. Men cumulatively lost financial resources in addition to facing multiple stressful roles. Delayed reactions such as pain and worries were triggered by the sight of similar-age-babies, subsequent pregnancy losses, and marital challenges. Participants recommended emotional support and management of postnatal complications for parents faced with perinatal loss. CONCLUSION: Losing a baby during the perinatal period in a resource-constrained setting negatively affected both gender. In addition, men suffered the loss of financial resources and the burden of multiple stressful roles. Acknowledging the pain and offering support to the grieving parents reinforce their coping with a perinatal loss. In addition to family and community members, health care providers need to provide emotional support and postnatal care to parents who experience perinatal death.

Prevalence and factors associated with substance use among HIV positive youth attending HIV care and treatment centers in Dodoma, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Substance use among people living with HIV is associated with poor health, social, and psychological outcomes. This study assessed the prevalence of substance use and associated factors among youth attending HIV care and treatment centers (CTCs) in Dodoma, Tanzania. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was carried out in Dodoma, Tanzania, from February to April 2020 among youth aged 15-24 attending HIV CTCs. Data was collected using sociodemographic, WHO ASSIST Version 3.0, BDI II, and SERAD questionnaires. Data analysis was done using Stata 17. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize continuous and categorical variables. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were conducted to determine factors independently associated with substance use. RESULTS: The prevalence of substance use was relatively low (6.6%). Older youth (20 to 24 years) were 2% less likely to use substances compared to the younger ones (15 to 19 years) (AOR: 0.07; 95% CI 0.01, 0.83). There were statistically significant decreasing odds of substance use with every year increase in age at HIV diagnosis (OR: 1.66; 95% CI 1.14, 2.41). Being unemployed was statistically significantly associated with decreased odds of substance use among this population (OR: 0.03; 95% CI 0.02, 0.33). Youth who had detectable viral loads were significantly more likely to use substances compared to those with undetectable viral loads (AOR: 12.9; 95% CI 1.07, 156.05). CONCLUSIONS: Despite the low prevalence of substance use found in this study, it is important to note that late age of HIV diagnosis, employment, and detectable viral load negatively impacted HIV positive youth with regards to substance use. It is recommended that CTCs emphasize routine screening for substance use among youth who have detectable viral loads.

Assessment, prevalence, and correlates of frailty among middle-aged adults with HIV in rural Uganda.

We investigated the prevalence and risk factors for frailty among people with HIV (PWH) in rural Uganda (n = 55, 47% male, mean age 44 years). Frailty was defined according to the Fried criteria with self-reported physical activity level replacing the Minnesota Leisure Time Activity Questionnaire. Alternate classifications for physical activity utilized were the sub-Saharan Africa Activity Questionnaire and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Eleven participants (19%) were frail. Frail participants were older (p < 0.001), less likely to be on antiretroviral therapy (p = 0.03), and had higher rates of depression (p < .001) and HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (p = 0.003). Agreement between physical activity measures was sub-optimal. Prevalence of frailty was high among PWH in rural Uganda, but larger sample sizes and local normative data are needed.

Improvement in depressive symptoms after antiretroviral therapy initiation in people with HIV in Rakai, Uganda.

Depression is common following HIV infection and often improves after ART initiation. We aimed to identify distinct dimensions of depression that change following ART initiation in persons with HIV (PWH) with minimal comorbidities (e.g., illicit substance use) and no psychiatric medication use. We expected that dimensional changes in improvements in depression would differ across PWH. In an observational cohort in Rakai, Uganda, 312 PWH (51% male; mean age = 35.6 years) completed the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression (CES-D) scale before and up to 2 years after ART initiation. Twenty-two percent were depressed (CES-D scores ≥ 16) pre-ART that decreased to 8% after ART. All CES-D items were used in a latent class analysis to identify subgroups with similar change phenotypes. Two improvement phenotypes were identified: affective-symptom improvement (n = 58, 19%) and mixed-symptom improvement (effort, appetite, irritability; n = 41, 13%). The affect-improvement subgroup improved on the greatest proportion of symptoms (76%). A third subgroup was classified as no-symptom changes (n = 213, 68%) as they showed no difference is symptom manifestation from baseline (93% did not meet depression criteria) to post-ART. Factors associated with subgroup membership in the adjusted regression analysis included pre-ART self-reported functional capacity, CD4 count, underweight BMI, hypertension, female sex(P's < 0.05). In a subset of PWH with CSF, subgroup differences were seen on Aß-42, IL-13, and IL-12. Findings support that depression generally improves following ART initiation; however, when improvement is seen the patterns of symptom improvement differ across PWH. Further exploration of this heterogeneity and its biological underpinning is needed to evaluate potential therapeutic implications of these differences.

Sex-specific associations between cerebrospinal fluid inflammatory marker levels and cognitive function in antiretroviral treated people living with HIV in rural Uganda.

People with HIV (PWH) taking antiretroviral therapy (ART) have persistent cognitive impairment. The prevalence of cognitive impairment is higher in women with HIV (WWH) compared to men with HIV (MWH), possibly due to sex differences in immune function. Here we report sex differences in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) immune markers in relation to cognitive performance. A subset of 83 PWH on ART (52% WWH; mean age = 37.6 years, SD = 7.9) from the Rakai community cohort study Cohort and Rakai Health Sciences Program supported clinics in rural Uganda completed a neuropsychological (NP) assessment and a lumbar puncture. CSF was used to measure 16 cytokines/chemokines. Individual NP test z-scores were generated based on local normative data. A series of least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (lasso) regressions examined associations between CSF inflammatory markers and NP outcomes. Overall, there were no sex differences in CSF inflammatory marker levels. However, MWH displayed more associations between inflammatory markers and cognitive performance than WWH. Among MWH, inflammatory markers were associated with a number of cognitive domains, including attention, processing speed, fluency, executive function, learning and memory. MIP-1ß, INF-γ, GM-CSF, IL-7 and IL-12p70 were associated with multiple domains. Among WWH, few inflammatory markers were associated cognition. Degree of associations between CSF inflammatory biomarkers and cognitive performance varied by sex in this young, ART-treated, Ugandan cohort. Further investigation into sex-specific inflammatory mechanisms of cognitive impairment among PWH is warranted to inform sex-specific management strategies.

Use of the creating opportunities for parent empowerment programme to decrease mental health problems in Ugandan children surviving severe malaria: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Severe malaria is associated with long-term mental health problems in Ugandan children. This study investigated the effect of a behavioural intervention for caregivers of children admitted with severe malaria, on the children's mental health outcomes 6 months after discharge. METHODS: This randomized controlled trial was conducted at Naguru Hospital in Kampala, Uganda from January 2018 to July 2019. Caregiver and child dyads were randomly assigned to either a psycho-educational arm providing information about hospital procedures during admission (control group), or to a behavioural arm providing information about the child's possible emotions and behaviour during and after admission, and providing age appropriate games for the caregiver and child (intervention group). Pre- and post-intervention assessments for caregiver anxiety and depression (Hopkins Symptom Checklist) and child mental health problems (Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire and the Child Behaviour Checklist) were done during admission and 6 months after discharge, respectively. T-tests, analysis of covariance, Chi-Square, and generalized estimating equations were used to compare outcomes between the two treatment arms. RESULTS: There were 120 caregiver-child dyads recruited at baseline with children aged 1.45 to 4.89 years (mean age 2.85 years, SD = 1.01). The intervention and control groups had similar sociodemographic, clinical and behavioural characteristics at baseline. Caregiver depression at baseline, mother's education and female child were associated with behavioural problems in the child at baseline (p < 0.05). At 6 months follow-up, there was no difference in the frequency of behavioural problems between the groups (6.8% vs. 10% in intervention vs control groups, respectively, p = 0.72). Caregiver depression and anxiety scores between the treatment arms did not differ at 6 months follow-up. CONCLUSION: This behavioural intervention for caregivers and their children admitted with severe malaria had no effect on the child's mental health outcomes at 6 months. Further studies need to develop interventions for mental health problems after severe malaria in children with longer follow-up time. Trail registration ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03432039.