Upregulation of the secretory pathway Ca2+/Mn2+-ATPase isoform 1 in LPS-stimulated microglia and its involvement in Mn2+-induced Golgi fragmentation.

Microglia play an important protective role in the healthy nervous tissue, being able to react to a variety of stimuli that induce different intracellular cascades for specific tasks. Ca2+ signaling can modulate these pathways, and we recently reported that microglial functions depend on the endoplasmic reticulum as a Ca2+ store, which involves the Ca2+ transporter SERCA2b. Here, we investigated whether microglial functions may also rely on the Golgi, another intracellular Ca2+ store that depends on the secretory pathway Ca2+/Mn2+-transport ATPase isoform 1 (SPCA1). We found upregulation of SPCA1 upon lipopolysaccharide stimulation of microglia BV2 cells and primary microglia, where alterations of the Golgi ribbon were also observed. Silencing and overexpression experiments revealed that SPCA1 affects cell morphology, Golgi apparatus integrity, and phagocytic functions. Since SPCA1 is also an efficient Mn2+ transporter and considering that Mn2+ excess causes manganism in the brain, we addressed the role of microglial SPCA1 in Mn2+ toxicity. Our results revealed a clear effect of Mn2+ excess on the viability and morphology of microglia. Subcellular analysis showed Golgi fragmentation and subsequent alteration of SPCA1 distribution from early stages of toxicity. Removal of Mn2+ by washing improved the culture viability, although it did not effectively reverse Golgi fragmentation. Interestingly, pretreatment with curcumin maintained microglia cultures viable, prevented Mn2+-induced Golgi fragmentation, and preserved SPCA Ca2+-dependent activity, suggesting curcumin as a potential protective agent against Mn2+-induced Golgi alterations in microglia.

The endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ -ATPase SERCA2b is upregulated in activated microglia and its inhibition causes opposite effects on migration and phagocytosis.

Activation of microglia is an early immune response to damage in the brain. Although a key role for Ca2+ as trigger of microglial activation has been considered, little is known about the molecular scenario for regulating Ca2+ homeostasis in these cells. Taking into account the importance of the endoplasmic reticulum as a cellular Ca2+ store, the sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+ -ATPase (SERCA2b) is an interesting target to modulate intracellular Ca2+ dynamics. We found upregulation of SERCA2b in activated microglia of human brain with Alzheimer's disease and we further studied the participation of SERCA2b in microglial functions by using the BV2 murine microglial cell line and primary microglia isolated from mouse brain. To trigger microglia activation, we used the bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which is known to induce an increase of cytosolic Ca2+ . Our results showed an upregulated expression of SERCA2b in LPS-induced activated microglia likely associated to an attempt to restore the increased cytosolic Ca2+ concentration. We analyzed SERCA2b contribution in microglial migration by using the specific SERCA inhibitor thapsigargin in scratch assays. Microglial migration was strongly stimulated with thapsigargin, even more than with LPS-induction, but delayed in time. However, phagocytic capacity of microglia was blocked in the presence of the SERCA inhibitor, indicating the importance of a tight control of cytosolic Ca2+ in these processes. All together, these results provide for the first time compelling evidence for SERCA2b as a major player regulating microglial functions, affecting migration and phagocytosis in an opposite manner.

PARP-1 activation after oxidative insult promotes energy stress-dependent phosphorylation of YAP1 and reduces cell viability.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1) is a nuclear enzyme that catalyze the transfer of ADP-ribose units from NAD+ to several target proteins involved in cellular stress responses. Using WRL68 (HeLa derivate) cells, we previously showed that PARP-1 activation induced by oxidative stress after H2O2 treatment lead to depletion of cellular NAD+ and ATP, which promoted cell death. In this work, LC-MS/MS-based phosphoproteomics in WRL68 cells showed that the oxidative damage induced by H2O2 increased the phosphorylation of YAP1, a transcriptional co-activator involved in cell survival, and modified the phosphorylation of other proteins involved in transcription. Genetic or pharmacological inhibition of PARP-1 in H2O2-treated cells reduced YAP1 phosphorylation and degradation and increased cell viability. YAP1 silencing abrogated the protective effect of PARP-1 inhibition, indicating that YAP1 is important for the survival of WRL68 cells exposed to oxidative damage. Supplementation of NAD+ also reduced YAP1 phosphorylation, suggesting that the loss of cellular NAD+ caused by PARP-1 activation after oxidative treatment is responsible for the phosphorylation of YAP1. Finally, PARP-1 silencing after oxidative treatment diminished the activation of the metabolic sensor AMPK. Since NAD+ supplementation reduced the phosphorylation of some AMPK substrates, we hypothesized that the loss of cellular NAD+ after PARP-1 activation may induce an energy stress that activates AMPK. In summary, we showed a new crucial role of PARP-1 in the response to oxidative stress in which PARP-1 activation reduced cell viability by promoting the phosphorylation and degradation of YAP1 through a mechanism that involves the depletion of NAD+.

Poly(ADP-Ribose) Polymerase-1 inhibition potentiates cell death and phosphorylation of DNA damage response proteins in oxidative stressed retinal cells.

Oxidative stress (OxS) is involved in the development of cell injures occurring in retinal diseases while Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerase-1 (PARP-1) is a key protein involved in the repair of the DNA damage caused by OxS. Inhibition of PARP-1 activity with the pharmacological inhibitor PJ34 in mouse retinal explants subjected to H2O2-induced oxidative damage resulted in an increase of apoptotic cells. Reduction of cell growth was also observed in the mouse cone like cell line 661 W in the presence of PJ34 under OxS conditions. Mass spectrometry-based phosphoproteomics analysis performed in 661 W cells determined that OxS induced significant changes in the phosphorylation in 1807 of the 8131 peptides initially detected. Blockade of PARP-1 activity after the oxidative treatment additionally increased the phosphorylation of multiple proteins, many of them at SQ motifs and related to the DNA-damage response (DDR). These motifs are substrates of the kinases ATM/ATR, which play a central role in DDR. Western blot analysis confirmed that the ATM/ATR activity measured and the phosphorylation at SQ motifs of ATM/ATR substrates was augmented when PARP-1 activity was inhibited under OxS conditions, in 661 W cells. Phosphorylation of ATM/ATR substrates, including the phosphorylation of the histone H2AX were also induced in organotypic cultures of retinal explants subjected to PARP-1 inhibition during exposure to OxS. In conclusion, inhibition of PARP-1 increased the phosphorylation and hence the activation of several proteins involved in the response to DNA damage, like the ATM protein kinase. This finally resulted in an augmented injury in mouse retinal cells suffering from OxS. Therefore, the inhibition of PARP-1 activity may have a negative outcome in the treatment of retinal diseases in which OxS is involved.

Ontogenetic cell death and phagocytosis in the visual system of vertebrates.

Programmed cell death (PCD), together with cell proliferation, cell migration, and cell differentiation, is an essential process during development of the vertebrate nervous system. The visual system has been an excellent model on which to investigate the mechanisms involved in ontogenetic cell death. Several phases of PCD have been reported to occur during visual system ontogeny. During these phases, comparative analyses demonstrate that dying cells show similar but not identical spatiotemporally restricted patterns in different vertebrates. Additionally, the chronotopographical coincidence of PCD with the entry of specialized phagocytes in some regions of the developing vertebrate visual system suggests that factors released from degenerating cells are involved in the cell migration of macrophages and microglial cells. Contradicting this hypothesis however, in many cases the cell corpses generated during degeneration are rapidly phagocytosed by neighboring cells, such as neuroepithelial cells or Müller cells. In this review, we describe the occurrence and the sites of PCD during the morphogenesis and differentiation of the retina and optic pathways of different vertebrates, and discuss the possible relationship between PCD and phagocytes during ontogeny.

Microglial cells in organotypic cultures of developing and adult mouse retina and their relationship with cell death.

Organotypic cultures of retinal explants allow the detailed analysis of microglial cells in a cellular microenvironment similar to that in the in situ retina, with the advantage of easy experimental manipulation. However, the in vitro culture causes changes in the retinal cytoarchitecture and induces a microglial response that may influence the results of these manipulations. The purpose of this study was to analyze the influence of the retinal age on changes in retinal cytoarchitecture, cell viability and death, and microglial phenotype and distribution throughout the in vitro culture of developing and adult retina explants. Explants from developing (3 and 10 postnatal days, P3 and P10) and adult (P60) mouse retinas were cultured for up to 10 days in vitro (div). Dead or dying cells were recognized by TUNEL staining, cell viability was determined by flow cytometry, and the numbers and distribution patterns of microglial cells were studied by flow cytometry and immunocytochemistry, respectively. The retinal cytoarchitecture was better preserved at prolonged culture times (10 div) in P10 retina explants than in P3 or adult explants. Particular patterns of cell viability and death were observed at each age: in general, explants from developing retinas showed higher cell viability and lower density of TUNEL-positive profiles versus adult retinas. The proportion of microglial cells relative to the whole population of retinal cells was higher in explants fixed immediately after their dissection (i.e., non-cultured) from adult retinas than in those from developing retinas. This proportion was always higher in non-cultured explants than in explants at 10 div, suggesting the death of some microglial cells during the culture. Activation of microglial cells, as revealed by their phenotypical appearance, was observed in both developing and adult retina explants from the beginning of the culture. Immunofluorescence with the anti-CD68 antibody showed that some activated microglial cells were CD68-positive but others were CD68-negative. Flow cytometry using CD68-labeling revealed that the percentage of CD68-positive microglial cells was much higher in developing than in adult retina explants, despite the activation of microglia in both types of explants, indicating that CD68-labeling was more closely related to the maturity degree of microglia than to their activation. Some swollen activated microglial cells entered the outer nuclear layer in developing and adult cultured retinal explants, whereas this layer was devoid of microglia in non-cultured explants. There was no apparent correlation between the distribution of microglia and that of TUNEL-labeled profiles. However, some swollen activated microglial cells in the outer and inner nuclear layers engulfed clusters of cell nuclei that were negative or weakly positive for TUNEL. This engulfment activity of microglia mimicked that observed in degenerative pathologies of the retina. We conclude that organotypic cultures from developing retinas show a higher rate of cell viability and better preservation of the normal cytoarchitecture in comparison to those obtained from adult retinas. In addition, the features of microglial response in cultured retinal explants show them to be a useful model for studying interactions between microglial cells and degenerating neurons in retinal diseases.

Distribution of intracellular Ca2+-ATPases in the mouse retina and their involvement in light-induced cone degeneration.

Calcium signalling is involved in many processes in mammalian retina, from development to mature functions and neurodegeneration. Although proteins involved in Ca2+ entry in retinal cells have been well studied, less is known about Ca2+-clearance. Among the Ca2+ pumps, plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPases (PMCAs) have been identified as key proteins extruding Ca2+ across the plasma membrane with specific distribution in developing and adult retina. However, the two main isoforms of intracellular Ca2+-ATPases in the central nervous system, the sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+-ATPase 2b (SERCA2b) and the secretory pathway Ca2+-ATPase 1 (SPCA1), which remove cytosolic Ca2+ into intracellular stores, have been less or not at all analysed, respectively. In this study, we described for the first time the SPCA1 localisation in adult mouse retina and we report differential distributions of SERCA2b and SPCA1 transporters within various classes of retinal neurons and distinct subcellular localisations. In addition, we studied the expression and localisation of both Ca2+ pumps in 661W cells, a cone photoreceptor-derived cell line. Since continuous exposure to high light intensity induces photodegeneration, we analysed the effect of LED light exposure on these cells and SERCA2b and SPCA1 distribution. We found that continuous mild LED-light exposure compromised cell survival and produced stress in the ER and Golgi, the Ca2+ stores where the two pumps are localised. These effects were reversed after halting light exposure and washing. This study demonstrates that Ca2+ signalling may be involved in light-induced photoreceptor cell damage and points to previously unrecognised functions of intracellular Ca2+-ATPases in retina physiology.

LPS-stimulated microglial cells promote ganglion cell death in organotypic cultures of quail embryo retina.

During development microglia colonize the central nervous system (CNS) and play an important role in programmed cell death, not only because of their ability to remove dead cells by phagocytosis, but also because they can promote the death of neuronal and glial cells. To study this process, we used as experimental systems the developing in situ quail embryo retina and organotypic cultures of quail embryo retina explants (QEREs). In both systems, immature microglia show an upregulation of certain inflammatory markers, e.g., inducible NO synthase (iNOS), and nitric oxide (NO) under basal conditions, which can be further enhanced with LPS-treatment. Hence, we investigated in the present study the role of microglia in promoting ganglion cell death during retinal development in QEREs. Results showed that LPS-stimulation of microglia in QEREs increases (i) the percentage of retinal cells with externalized phosphatidylserine, (ii) the frequency of phagocytic contacts between microglial and caspase-3-positive ganglion cells, (iii) cell death in the ganglion cell layer, and (iv) microglial production of reactive oxygen/nitrogen species, such as NO. Furthermore, iNOS inhibition by L-NMMA decreases cell death of ganglion cells and increases the number of ganglion cells in LPS-treated QEREs. These data demonstrate that LPS-stimulated microglia induce ganglion cell death in cultured QEREs by a NO-dependent mechanism. The fact that phagocytic contacts between microglial and caspase-3-positive ganglion cells increase suggests that this cell death might be mediated by microglial engulfment, although a phagocytosis-independent mechanism cannot be excluded.

Embryonic and postnatal development of microglial cells in the mouse retina.

Macrophage/microglial cells in the mouse retina during embryonic and postnatal development were studied by immunocytochemistry with Iba1, F4/80, anti-CD45, and anti-CD68 antibodies and by tomato lectin histochemistry. These cells were already present in the retina of embryos aged 11.5 days (E11.5) in association with cell death. At E12.5 some macrophage/microglial cells also appeared in peripheral regions of the retina with no apparent relationship with cell death. Immediately before birth microglial cells were present in the neuroblastic, inner plexiform (IPL), and ganglion cell (GCL) layers, and their distribution suggested that they entered the retina from the ciliary margin and the vitreous. The density of retinal microglial cells strongly decreased at birth, increased during the first postnatal week as a consequence of the entry of microglial precursors into the retina from the vitreous, and subsequently decreased owing to the cessation of microglial entry and the increase in retina size. The mature topographical distribution pattern of microglia emerged during postnatal development of the retina, apparently by radial migration of microglial cells from the vitreal surface in a vitreal-to-scleral direction. Whereas microglial cells were only seen in the GCL and IPL at birth, they progressively appeared in more scleral layers at increasing postnatal ages. Thus, microglial cells were present within all layers of the retina except the outer nuclear layer at the beginning of the second postnatal week. Once microglial cells reached their definitive location, they progressively ramified.

Early development of the optic nerve in the turtle Mauremys leprosa.

We show the distribution of the neural and non-neural elements in the early development of the optic nerve in the freshwater turtle, Mauremys leprosa, using light and electron microscopy. The first optic axons invaded the ventral periphery of the optic stalk in close relationship to the radial neuroepithelial processes. Growth cones were thus exclusively located in the ventral margin. As development progressed, growth cones were present in ventral and dorsal regions, including the dorsal periphery, where they intermingled with mature axons. However, growth cones predominated in the ventral part and axonal profiles dorsally, reflecting a dorsal to ventral gradient of maturation. The size and morphology of growth cones depended on the developmental stage and the region of the optic nerve. At early stages, most growth cones were of irregular shape, showing abundant lamellipodia. At the following stages, they tended to be larger and more complex in the ventral third than in intermediate and dorsal portions, suggesting a differential behavior of the growth cones along the ventro-dorsal axis. The arrival of optic axons at the optic stalk involved the progressive transformation of neuroepithelial cells into glial cells. Simultaneously with the fiber invasion, an important number of cells died by apoptosis in the dorsal wall of the optic nerve. These findings are discussed in relation to the results described in the developing optic nerve of other vertebrates.

Onset of microglial entry into developing quail retina coincides with increased expression of active caspase-3 and is mediated by extracellular ATP and UDP.

Microglial cell precursors located in the area of the base of the pecten and the optic nerve head (BP/ONH) start to enter the retina of quail embryos at the 7th day of incubation (E7), subsequently colonizing the entire retina by central-to-peripheral tangential migration, as previously shown by our group. The present study demonstrates a precise chronological coincidence of the onset of microglial cell entry into the retina with a striking increase in death of retinal cells, as revealed by their active caspase-3 expression and TUNEL staining, in regions dorsal to the BP/ONH area, suggesting that dying retinal cells would contribute to the microglial cell inflow into the retina. However, the molecular mechanisms involved in this inflow are currently unclear. Extracellular nucleotides, such as ATP and UDP, have previously been shown to favor migration of microglia towards brain injuries because they are released by apoptotic cells and stimulate both chemotaxis and chemokinesis in microglial cells via signaling through purinergic receptors. Hence, we tested here the hypothesis that ATP and UDP play a role in the entry and migration of microglial precursors into the developing retina. For this purpose, we used an experimental model system based on organotypic cultures of E6.5 quail embryo retina explants, which mimics the entry and migration of microglial precursors in the in situ developing retina. Inhibition of purinergic signaling by treating retina explants with either apyrase, a nucleotide-hydrolyzing enzyme, or suramin, a broad spectrum antagonist of purinergic receptors, significantly prevents the entry of microglial cells into the retina. In addition, treatment of retina explants with either exogenous ATP or UDP results in significantly increased numbers of microglial cells entering the retina. In light of these findings, we conclude that purinergic signaling by extracellular ATP and UDP is necessary for the entry and migration of microglial cells into the embryonic retina by inducing chemokinesis in these cells.

Poly(ADP-ribose)polymerases inhibitors prevent early mitochondrial fragmentation and hepatocyte cell death induced by H2O2.

Poly(ADP-ribose)polymerases (PARPs) are a family of NAD+ consuming enzymes that play a crucial role in many cellular processes, most clearly in maintaining genome integrity. Here, we present an extensive analysis of the alteration of mitochondrial morphology and the relationship to PARPs activity after oxidative stress using an in vitro model of human hepatic cells. The following outcomes were observed: reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced by oxidative treatment quickly stimulated PARPs activation, promoted changes in mitochondrial morphology associated with early mitochondrial fragmentation and energy dysfunction and finally triggered apoptotic cell death. Pharmacological treatment with specific PARP-1 (the major NAD+ consuming poly(ADP-ribose)polymerases) and PARP-1/PARP-2 inhibitors after the oxidant insult recovered normal mitochondrial morphology and, hence, increased the viability of human hepatic cells. As the PARP-1 and PARP-1/PARP-2 inhibitors achieved similar outcomes, we conclude that most of the PARPs effects were due to PARP-1 activation. NAD+ supplementation had similar effects to those of the PARPs inhibitors. Therefore, PARPs activation and the subsequent NAD+ depletion are crucial events in decreased cell survival (and increased apoptosis) in hepatic cells subjected to oxidative stress. These results suggest that the alterations in mitochondrial morphology and function seem to be related to NAD+ depletion, and show for the first time that PARPs inhibition abrogates mitochondrial fragmentation. In conclusion, the inhibition of PARPs may be a valuable therapeutic approach for treating liver diseases, by reducing the cell death associated with oxidative stress.

Specific immunolabeling of brain macrophages and microglial cells in the developing and mature chick central nervous system.

The present study showed that the HIS-C7 monoclonal antibody, which recognizes the chick form of CD45, is a specific marker for macrophages/microglial cells in the developing and mature chick central nervous system (CNS). HIS-C7-positive cells were characterized according to their morphological features and chronotopographical distribution patterns within developing and adult CNS, similar to those of macrophages/microglial cells in the quail CNS and confirmed by their histochemical labeling with Ricinus communis agglutinin I, a lectin that recognizes chick microglial cells. Therefore, the HIS-C7 antibody is a valuable tool to identify brain macrophage and microglial cells in studies of the function, development, and pathology of the chick brain. CD45 expression differed between chick microglia (as revealed with HIS-C7 antibody) and mouse microglial cells (as revealed with an antibody against mouse form of CD45). Thus, a discontinuous label was seen on mouse microglial cells with the anti-mouse CD45 immunostaining, whereas the entire surface of chick microglial cells was labeled with the anti-chick CD45 staining. The functional relevance of these differences between species has yet to be determined.

Developmental changes in the fibre population of the optic nerve follow an avian/mammalian-like pattern in the turtle Mauremys leprosa.

The changes in the axon and growth cone numbers in the optic nerve of the freshwater turtle Mauremys leprosa were studied by electron microscopy from the embryonic day 14 (E14) to E80, when the animals normally hatch, and from the first postnatal day (P0) to adulthood (5 years on). At E16, the first axons appeared in the optic nerve and were added slowly until E21. From E21, the fibre number increased rapidly, peaking at E34 (570,000 fibres). Thereafter, the axon number decreased sharply, and from E47 declined steadily until reaching the mature number (about 330,000). These observations indicated that during development of the retina there was an overproduction and later elimination of retinal ganglion cells. Growth cones were first observed in the optic nerve at as early as E16. Their number increased rapidly until E21 and continued to be high through E23 and E26. After E26, the number declined steeply and by E40 the optic nerve was devoid of growth cones. These results indicated that differentiation of the retinal ganglion cells occurred during the first half of the embryonic life. To examine the correlation between the loss of the fibres from the optic nerve and loss of the parent retinal ganglion cells, retinal sections were processed with the TUNEL technique. Apoptotic nuclei were detected in the ganglion cell layer throughout the period of loss of the optic fibres. Our results showed that the time course of the numbers of the fibres in the developing turtle optic nerve was similar to those found in birds and mammals.

Activation of immature microglia in response to stab wound in embryonic quail retina.

Activation of mature (ramified) microglia in response to injury in the adult central nervous system (CNS) is well documented. However, the response of immature (ameboid) microglia to injury in the developing CNS has received little attention. In this study, a stab wound was made in embryonic quail retinas at incubation days 7 and 9, and the response of retinal microglial cells was analyzed at different times between days 1 and 37 postinjury. The appearance of microglial cells within the wound occurred at the same time as the arrival of the first migrating ameboid microglial cells at an equivalent area in control retinas. Therefore, no specific attraction of microglia toward the wound was observed. Microglial cells in the wound had phenotypic features similar to those of activated microglia in the adult CNS. Thus, their shape was more compact compared with microglial cells outside the wound, expression of the molecule recognized by the QH1 antibody was up-regulated, and their lysosomal compartment was markedly increased. Transitional forms between normal ameboid and activated-like microglial cells were seen at the wound edge, supporting the view that ameboid microglia become activated when they contact the wound during the normal course of their migration in the retina. The microglial reaction was maintained within the wound at 37 days postinjury. In addition to the stab wound, secondary damage areas were found in experimental retinas. Activated cells could still be observed in these areas at 37 days postinjury.

Microglial Activation Promotes Cell Survival in Organotypic Cultures of Postnatal Mouse Retinal Explants.

The role of microglia during neurodegeneration remains controversial. We investigated whether microglial cells have a neurotoxic or neuroprotective function in the retina. Retinal explants from 10-day-old mice were treated in vitro with minocycline to inhibit microglial activation, with LPS to increase microglial activation, or with liposomes loaded with clodronate (Lip-Clo) to deplete microglial cells. Flow cytometry was used to assess the viability of retinal cells in the explants and the TUNEL method to show the distribution of dead cells. The immunophenotypic and morphological features of microglia and their distribution were analyzed with flow cytometry and immunocytochemistry. Treatment of retinal explants with minocycline reduced microglial activation and simultaneously significantly decreased cell viability and increased the presence of TUNEL-labeled cell profiles. This treatment also prevented the migration of microglial cells towards the outer nuclear layer, where cell death was most abundant. The LPS treatment increased microglial activation but had no effect on cell viability or microglial distribution. Finally, partial microglial removal with Lip-Clo diminished the cell viability in the retinal explants, showing a similar effect to that of minocycline. Hence, cell viability is diminished in retinal explants cultured in vitro when microglial cells are removed or their activation is inhibited, indicating a neurotrophic role for microglia in this system.

DNA damage, poly(ADP-Ribose) polymerase activation, and phosphorylated histone H2AX expression during postnatal retina development in C57BL/6 mouse.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the incidence of DNA damage during postnatal development of the retina and the relationship between DNA damage and cell death. METHODS: DNA damage in the developing postnatal retina of C57BL/6 mice was assessed by determining the amounts of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), which is indicative of DNA oxidation and related to the formation of DNA single-strand breaks (SSBs), and phosphorylated histone H2AX (γ-H2AX), a marker of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) activation was measured by ELISA and Western blotting. The location of γ-H2AX-positive and dying cells was determined by immunofluorescence and TUNEL assays. RESULTS: Oxidative DNA damage was maintained at low levels during high PARP activation between postnatal days 0 (P0) and P7. Phosphorylated histone H2AX gradually increased between P0 and P14 and decreased thereafter. Phosphorylated histone H2AX-positive cells with cell death morphology or TUNEL positivity were more abundant at P7 than at P14. CONCLUSIONS: Oxidative DNA damage in postnatal retina increases during development. It is low during the first postnatal week when PARP-1 activity is high but increases thereafter. The rise in DSBs when PARP activity is downregulated may be attributable to accumulated oxidative damage and SSBs. At P7 and P14, γ-H2AX-positive cells are repairing naturally occurring DNA damage, but some are dying (mostly at P7), probably due to an accumulation of irreparable DNA damage.

Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in microglia of the developing quail retina.

Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), which produce large amounts of nitric oxide (NO), is induced in macrophages and microglia in response to inflammatory mediators such as LPS and cytokines. Although iNOS is mainly expressed by microglia that become activated in different pathological and experimental situations, it was recently reported that undifferentiated amoeboid microglia can also express iNOS during normal development. The aim of this study was to investigate the pattern of iNOS expression in microglial cells during normal development and after their activation with LPS by using the quail retina as model. iNOS expression was analyzed by iNOS immunolabeling, western-blot, and RT-PCR. NO production was determined by using DAR-4M AM, a reliable fluorescent indicator of subcellular NO production by iNOS. Embryonic, postnatal, and adult in situ quail retinas were used to analyze the pattern of iNOS expression in microglial cells during normal development. iNOS expression and NO production in LPS-treated microglial cells were investigated by an in vitro approach based on organotypic cultures of E8 retinas, in which microglial cell behavior is similar to that of the in situ retina, as previously demonstrated in our laboratory. We show here that amoeboid microglia in the quail retina express iNOS during normal development. This expression is stronger in microglial cells migrating tangentially in the vitreal part of the retina and is downregulated, albeit maintained, when microglia differentiate and become ramified. LPS treatment of retina explants also induces changes in the morphology of amoeboid microglia compatible with their activation, increasing their lysosomal compartment and upregulating iNOS expression with a concomitant production of NO. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that immature microglial cells express iNOS during normal development, suggesting a certain degree of activation. Furthermore, LPS treatment induces overactivation of amoeboid microglia, resulting in a significant iNOS upregulation.

Microglia and neuronal cell death.

Microglia, the brain's innate immune cell type, are cells of mesodermal origin that populate the central nervous system (CNS) during development. Undifferentiated microglia, also called ameboid microglia, have the ability to proliferate, phagocytose apoptotic cells and migrate long distances toward their final destinations throughout all CNS regions, where they acquire a mature ramified morphological phenotype. Recent studies indicate that ameboid microglial cells not only have a scavenger role during development but can also promote the death of some neuronal populations. In the mature CNS, adult microglia have highly motile processes to scan their territorial domains, and they display a panoply of effects on neurons that range from sustaining their survival and differentiation contributing to their elimination. Hence, the fine tuning of these effects results in protection of the nervous tissue, whereas perturbations in the microglial response, such as the exacerbation of microglial activation or lack of microglial response, generate adverse situations for the organization and function of the CNS. This review discusses some aspects of the relationship between microglial cells and neuronal death/survival both during normal development and during the response to injury in adulthood.

Simultaneous cell death and upregulation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 expression in early postnatal mouse retina.

PURPOSE: Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP)-1 is a nuclear enzyme that transfers ADP-ribose units (PAR polymer) to nuclear proteins and has been implicated in caspase-independent cell death in different models of retinal degeneration. The involvement of PARP-1 in cell death occurring during normal postnatal development of the mouse retina was investigated. In addition, the expression of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), a caspase-independent cell death mediator, was explored because PARP-1 activation has been related to the translocation of a 57-kDa form of AIF into the cell nucleus. METHODS: Cell death was determined in retinas of developing mice by both ELISA and TUNEL. PARP-1, PAR, and AIF were analyzed by immunocytochemistry and immunoblotting. Quantification of PARP-1 mRNA levels was also performed by real-time PCR. RESULTS: PARP-1 upregulation and PAR polymer formation, indicative of PARP-1 activity, were observed during the first postnatal week simultaneously with the presence of abundant dying cells, some of which were not associated with active caspase-3. PARP-1 was downregulated and PARP-1 activity progressively declined in the retina during subsequent postnatal development, coinciding with the decrease in cell death. Truncated AIF (57 kDa) was present in the retina during the first postnatal week, gradually decreasing thereafter, and had a nuclear localization in some cells, which also showed strong PAR polymer nuclear staining. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that a caspase-independent cell death pathway exists during the normal development of the mouse retina and suggest that PARP-1 participates in this cell death pathway by mediating AIF translocation to the cell nucleus.