Neural network interactions and ingestive behavior control during anorexia.

Many models have been proposed over the years to explain how motivated feeding behavior is controlled. One of the most compelling is based on the original concepts of Eliot Stellar whereby sets of interosensory and exterosensory inputs converge on a hypothalamic control network that can either stimulate or inhibit feeding. These inputs arise from information originating in the blood, the viscera, and the telencephalon. In this manner the relative strengths of the hypothalamic stimulatory and inhibitory networks at a particular time dictates how an animal feeds. Anorexia occurs when the balance within the networks consistently favors the restraint of feeding. This article discusses experimental evidence supporting a model whereby the increases in plasma osmolality that result from drinking hypertonic saline activate pathways projecting to neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVH) and lateral hypothalamic area (LHA). These neurons constitute the hypothalamic controller for ingestive behavior, and receive a set of afferent inputs from regions of the brain that process sensory information that is critical for different aspects of feeding. Important sets of inputs arise in the arcuate nucleus, the hindbrain, and in the telencephalon. Anorexia is generated in dehydrated animals by way of osmosensitive projections to the behavior control neurons in the PVH and LHA, rather than by actions on their afferent inputs.

Activation in neural networks controlling ingestive behaviors: what does it mean, and how do we map and measure it?

Over the past thirty years many of different methods have been developed that use markers to track or image the activity of the neurons within the central networks that control ingestive behaviors. The ultimate goal of these experiments is to identify the location of neurons that participate in the response to an identified stimulus, and more widely to define the structure and function of the networks that control specific aspects of ingestive behavior. Some of these markers depend upon the rapid accumulation of proteins, while others reflect altered energy metabolism as neurons change their firing rates. These methods are widely used in behavioral neuroscience, but the way results are interpreted within the context of defining neural networks is constrained by how we answer the following questions. How well can the structure of the behavior be documented? What do we know about the processes that lead to the accumulation of the marker? What is the function of the marker within the neuron? How closely in time does the marker accumulation track the stimulus? How long does the marker persist after the stimulus is removed? We will review how these questions can be addressed with regard to ingestive and related behaviors. We will also discuss the importance of plotting the location of labeled cells using standardized atlases to facilitate the presentation and comparison of data between experiments and laboratories. Finally, we emphasize the importance of comprehensive and accurate mapping for using newly emerging technologies in neuroinfomatics.

Medial preoptic area interactions with the nucleus accumbens-ventral pallidum circuit and maternal behavior in rats.

Several experiments explored the roles of nucleus accumbens (NA), ventral pallidum (VP) and medial preoptic area (MPOA) in the regulation of maternal behavior in rats. A preliminary experiment found that bilateral radiofrequency lesions of medial NA did not disrupt maternal behavior. Experiment 1 found that bilateral infusions of muscimol into VP, but not into medial NA, reversibly disrupted maternal behavior. Experiment 2 found that unilateral muscimol injections into VP disrupted maternal behavior to a greater extent when paired with a contralateral N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) MPOA lesion than when paired with a sham MPOA lesion. Experiment 3 showed that a unilateral NMDA MPOA lesion paired with a contralateral NMDA VP lesion (Contra group) disrupted maternal behavior to a much greater extent than did sham NMLA lesions or NMDA lesions of MPOA and VP ipsilateral to one another. Experiment 3 focused on the specificity of the maternal behavior disruptions and found that the primary maternal deficit in the Contra females was a severe deficit in retrieval behavior. Importantly, these females showed normal hoarding behavior, home cage activity, and elevated plus maze activity. Experiment 3 used Neu N immunohistochemistry to define the extent of MPOA and VP excitotoxic lesions. It is hypothesized that MPOA acts to facilitate the active components of maternal behavior by inhibiting NA, which then releases VP from GABAergic inhibition, and such disinhibition of VP allows pup stimuli to trigger appropriate maternal responses.

Rates and symptoms of PTSD among cocaine-dependent patients.

OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated lifetime traumatic events and current posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in a substance abuse sample. METHOD: Participants in the study consisted of 558 (75.1% male) cocaine-dependent individuals who completed self-report measures of trauma and PTSD symptoms prior to entry into treatment. RESULTS: Results showed a high number of lifetime traumatic events, even among those without PTSD. General disaster was the most prevalent. Current PTSD was found in 10.9% of the participants, with a significantly higher rate among women (21.6%) than among men (7.2%). For those with PTSD, the most prominent PTSD symptom cluster was arousal, and the most common symptoms were restricted affect, detachment and irritability. Participants with PTSD endorsed a large number of symptoms, almost double that needed to meet diagnostic criteria; however, neither number of traumas nor type of trauma was associated with their level of PTSD symptoms. Even among those not meeting PTSD criteria, subthreshold symptoms were found, with avoidance the most prominent cluster. Sociodemographic and recent cocaine use variables did not differentiate the PTSD from non-PTSD groups. CONCLUSIONS: PTSD is present in a sizeable percentage of cocaine-dependent treatment-seeking patients, particularly women. Clinicians might address arousal symptoms in particular, which were the most prominent symptom cluster, and which may be exacerbated by cocaine use. Even among those without PTSD, lifetime trauma is substantial and subthreshold PTSD symptoms are common. Vulnerability to PTSD needs further study, as sociodemographic and cocaine use variables did not distinguish between PTSD and non-PTSD groups.