Not Enough Money and Too Many Thoughts: Exploring Perceptions of Mental Health in Two Ugandan Districts Through the Mental Health Literacy Framework.

Mental health disorders account for a heavy disease burden in Uganda. In order to provide culturally appropriate mental health prevention and treatment approaches, it is necessary to understand how mental health is conceptualized in the population. Three focus group discussions (FGDs) and 31 in-depth interviews (IDIs) were conducted with men and women aged 14 to 62 years residing in rural, urban, and semi-urban low-income communities in central and western Uganda to explore perceptions and knowledge of mental health. Interpretive thematic analysis was undertaken; results were organized through the lens of the mental health literacy framework. Environmental and societal stressors were identified as primary underlying causes of poor mental health. While participants recognized symptoms of poor mental health, gaps in mental health literacy also emerged. Mental health resources are needed in this setting and additional qualitative work assessing knowledge and attitudes toward mental health care seeking behavior can inform the development of acceptable integrated services.

Male circumcision wound healing in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-negative and HIV-positive men in Rakai, Uganda.

OBJECTIVE: To assess completed wound healing after medical male circumcision (MMC) among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-negative and HIV-positive men with cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) counts of <350 and ≥350 cells/mm(3) , as minimal data are available on the safety of MMC among HIV-positive men with low CD4 counts. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In all, 262 HIV-negative and 177 HIV-positive consenting males aged ≥12 years accepted MMC using the dorsal slit procedure and were enrolled in the study. Socio-demographic and behavioural data and blood for HIV testing and CD4 counts were collected at baseline. Participants were followed weekly to collect information on resumption of sex, condom use and both self-reported and clinically assessed wound healing. The proportions healed among HIV-positive men were compared with HIV-negative men. Time to complete wound healing was assessed by Kaplan-Meier survival analysis. RESULTS: There were no statistically significant differences in the proportion of men healed by HIV status. At 4 weeks, the proportions healed were 85.9% in HIV-negative men, 77.4% in HIV-positive men with a CD4 count of ≥350 cells/mm(3) and 87.1% in HIV-positive men with a CD4 count of <350 cells/mm(3) . The median time to healing was 4 weeks and did not vary by HIV or CD4 status. All men had certified complete wound healing at 6 weeks after MMC. In all, 1.4% of HIV-positive men with a CD4 count of <350 cells/mm(3) resumed sex before healing, compared with 8.5% among HIV-positive men with a CD4 count of ≥350 cells/mm(3) (P = 0.052) and 7.8% (P = 0.081) among HIV-negative men. CONCLUSION: Inclusion of HIV-positive men with low CD4 counts in MMC services is not deleterious to postoperative wound healing.

Human papillomavirus clearance among males is associated with HIV acquisition and increased dendritic cell density in the foreskin.

BACKGROUND: The association between human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and the risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) seroconversion is unclear, and the genital cellular immunology has not been evaluated. METHODS: A case-control analysis nested within a male circumcision trial was conducted. Cases consisted of 44 male HIV seroconverters, and controls were 787 males who were persistently negative for HIV. The Roche HPV Linear Array Genotype Test detected high-risk HPV (HR-HPV) and low-risk HPV (LR-HPV) genotypes. Generalized estimating equations logistic regression was used to estimate adjusted odds ratios (aORs) of HIV seroconversion. In addition, densities of CD1a(+) dendritic cells, CD4(+) T cells, and CD8(+) T cells were measured using immunohistochemistry analysis in foreskins of 79 males randomly selected from participants in the circumcision trial. RESULTS: HR-HPV or LR-HPV acquisition was not significantly associated with HIV seroconversion, after adjustment for sexual behaviors. However, HR-HPV and LR-HPV clearance was significantly associated with HIV seroconversion (aOR, 3.25 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.11-9.55] and 3.18 [95% CI, 1.14-8.90], respectively). The odds of HIV seroconversion increased with increasing number of HPV genotypes cleared (P < .001, by the test for trend). The median CD1a(+) dendritic cell density in the foreskin epidermis was significantly higher among males who cleared HPV (72.0 cells/mm(2) [interquartile range {IQR}, 29.4-138.3 cells/mm(2)]), compared with males who were persistently negative for HPV (32.1 cells/mm(2) [IQR, 3.1-96.2 cells/mm(2)]; P = .047), and increased progressively with the number of HPV genotypes cleared (P = .05). CONCLUSIONS: HPV clearance was associated with subsequent HIV seroconversion and also with increased epidermal dendritic cell density, which potentially mediates HIV seroconversion.

Women's access to family planning and experiences of reproductive coercion during the COVID-19 lockdown in two districts of Uganda.

Background: In March 2020, Uganda enforced country-wide restrictions to control the spread of SARS-CoV-2, categorizing some health services, including family planning (FP), as non-essential. Globally, similar COVID-19 restrictions have been associated with increased vulnerability to reproductive coercion (RC) among women, due to changes in FP service availability and restricted access by partners. This study aims to investigate these dynamics in Uganda, specifically examining the impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on women's access to FP, their experiences of RC, and the relationship between RC and intimate partner violence (IPV). Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of data from 960 women participating in the AMBSO Population Health Surveillance Study (APHS) between August 2020 and March 2021 across Wakiso (N = 164) and Hoima (N = 796) districts in Uganda. Our analysis focused on women who were sexually active in the past month, using bivariate analyses to explore the associations between RC and recent experiences of sexual, physical, and verbal IPV. Findings: The most commonly reported FP methods were injectables (36.8 %) and implants (16 %). Despite the COVID-19 lockdown, less than one percent of participants reported an inability to access their preferred FP method. Notably, 3 % of the women experienced RC in the past 12 months. There was a significant association between RC and sexual IPV (p < 0.0001), as well as physical IPV (p < 0.0001). Instances of verbal IPV were observed to have tripled during the lockdown period. Interpretation: An increase in verbal IPV was found among women during the COVID-19 lockdown. Additionally, a notable association emerged between other forms of IPV and an increased risk of RC. Despite the lockdown, access to FP remained high, which could be attributed to the prevalent use of long-acting FP methods.

Examining associations between mental health and Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases (C-NCDs) among older adults in Wakiso, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Globally, the prevalence of chronic non-communicable diseases (C-NCDs) and occurrence of multi-morbidity specifically, has been increasing and will continue to rise as life expectancy increases. The burden of mental health disorders has also been rising globally. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), literature on these health issues, which are interrelated, is scarce. This study assesses the prevalence of C-NCDs, and depressive and anxiety symptomology and examines the relationship between these issues among a sample of older adults in Uganda. METHODS: Between 2021-2022, 604 consenting adults aged 35 years and older were surveyed on a broad range of health issues for the ongoing AMBSO Population Health Surveillance (APHS) cohort study in Wakiso district. Descriptive analyses were performed to characterize the burden of C-NCDs (e.g. diabetes, hypertension), depression (PHQ-9 using a cutoff of <5 scores for minimal/no and 5+ for mild to severe symptomology) and anxiety (GAD-7 using a cutoff of 5+ scores for mild to severe symptomology). Bivariate analysis and multivariable logistic regression models were built using STATA software version 16.0 to examine associations between mental health disorders and having at least one C-NCD. Our exposures of interest were depressive and anxiety symptoms and our outcomes of interest was presence of C-NCDs. RESULTS: Majority of participants were females (63.6%), median age was 46 (IQR: 39-54). Any C-NCDs prevalence was 18.7%, while 18.9% and 11.4%, had screening scores indicative of depressive and anxiety symptomology, respectively. Three percent (3.2%) had PHQ-9 scores indicative of moderate to severe depressive symptomology. In models adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics, there was 12% increased odds of suffering from C-NCDs for every unit increase in PHQ-9 score (AOR = 1.12, 95% CI: 1.10-1.20). Participants with any anxiety symptoms had 2.1 greater odds of suffering from C-NCD compared to those who did not have anxiety symptoms (AOR = 2.10, 95% CI: 1.21-3.70). CONCLUSION: C-NCDs were prevalent in older adults, particularly among those experiencing mental health symptoms. Screening for C-NCDs and mental health disorders should be integrated into routine health care for older adults in the country. Early screening and identification of these health issues through primary health care could significantly reduce the public health burden attributable to mental health disorders and the incidence of multi-morbidity in Uganda.

Motivations for continued tobacco smoking and reasons for quitting among youths in Wakiso district, Uganda: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Efforts have been invested towards cessation of tobacco use among youths aged 18-35 years, however, motivators for continued tobacco smoking and reasons for quitting are limited in Ugandan settings. Therefore, this study aimed to explore motivations for continued tobacco smoking and reasons for quitting in Wakiso district Uganda. METHODS: This study used explanatory sequential method. Data from a Population-based survey collected from October 2019 to September 2020 was used to select participants for this qualitative study. Twenty-three in-depths interviews were conducted from July to October 2021 among youths (18-35years old) who reported continued tobacco use and those who quit. Data were analyzed using a team-based thematic content approach with the help of NVivo. RESULTS: Data was collected from a total of twenty three participants, fourteen were tobacco quitters and nine were current tobacco smokers. Recurrent habit, desire to complement the use of other drugs, peer pressure, using smoking as a replacement for alcohol consumption, low tobacco prices, smoking as a tradition were reported as motivators for continued tobacco smoking. However, reported reasons for quitting smoking by youths included; packaging health warnings, school based prevention programs, fear of associated health risks due to tobacco use, embarrassment from family members. CONCLUSION: Targeted, and tailored tobacco prevention counselling through family support programs, intensified health education on the risks of smoking, and implementing stronger health warnings on tobacco packaging can be employed to reduce or stop tobacco use among urban youth.

Prevalence and predictors of use of long-term and short-acting reversible contraceptives among women of reproductive age in Wakiso and Hoima districts, Uganda: A cross-sectional study.

Modern contraceptive use has increased globally, but unmet needs persist in low- and middle-income countries. This study in Uganda aimed to examine the prevalence and factors influencing the use of short-acting reversible contraceptives (SARC) like pills and long-term methods such as intrauterine devices. Limited evidence exists on the use of SARC and long-term methods in Uganda. Data from the Africa Medical and Behavioural Sciences Organization (AMBSO) Population Health Surveillance (APHS) in Hoima and Wakiso districts were analysed. Among the 1642 women aged 15-49 years, the prevalence of modern contraceptive use was 30% for SARC, and 18% for long-term method. Women with formal education were three times more likely to use long-term methods than those without formal education, relative risk ratios (RRR), 3.1-3.4, (95%CI 1.2-8.2). Joint decision-making for contraceptive use increased SARC usage, RRR 1.4 (95%CI 1.1-1.8). Urbanization played a role, with women in more urbanized Wakiso district less likely to use any modern contraception, RRR 0.6-0.7 (95%CI 0.5-0.9) compared to those living in the less urbanized Hoima. About half of the women in the study used modern contraceptives and the use of SARC was almost twice that of long-term methods. Increased access to contraception education for all women of reproductive age could significantly improve the use of long-term methods which offer more reliable protection against unintended pregnancies. The findings shed light on the need to strengthen both general and sexuality education to girls and women and to tailor contraception access for all in need, for mobile semi-urban as well as rural women. Well-informed strategies that engage young men and male partners in informed decision-making for contraceptive use could enhance progress.

Use of a mixture of lignocaine and bupivacaine vs lignocaine alone for male circumcision under local anaesthesia in Rakai, Uganda.

OBJECTIVE: To assess self-reported pain control during and after surgery with a mixture of lignocaine and bupivacaine compared with lignocaine alone among male circumcision (MC) service recipients in Rakai, Uganda. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The two formulations of local anaesthesia for MC were used alternatively at weekly intervals in 360 patients; 179 received lignocaine alone and 181 received the lignocaine and bupivacaine mixture (LBmix). The proportions of men reporting pain during or after surgery, and the need for additional anaesthesia during surgery were determined for the LBmix vs lignocaine using Poisson adjusted rate ratios (RRs). Characteristics including age, weight, surgeon (medical officer vs clinical officer), surgical method and duration of surgery were compared between the arms using two-sample t-tests and chi-square tests. RESULTS: Patient and provider characteristics were comparable between the two anaesthetic groups. A higher proportion of patients reported pain during surgery in the lignocaine group (adjusted RR 11.6, 95% confidence interval [CI] 3.5-37.9, P < 0.001), required additional anaesthesia (adjusted RR 4.8, 95% CI 1.4-17.1, P = 0.015), and were more likely to report pain during the immediate postoperative period (adjusted RR 3.4, 95% CI 2.3-5.0, P < 0.001). These differences were particularly marked among patients with MC times longer than the median (adjusted RR 13.4, 95% CI 3.1-57.0, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The LBmix significantly reduced pain associated with MC and the need for additional anaesthesia during MC.

Exploring the impact of COVID-19 on women's alcohol use, mental health, and experiences of intimate partner violence in Wakiso, Uganda.

INTRODUCTION: Uganda confirmed its first COVID-19 case in March 2020, leading to country-wide closures and a stay-at-home order. Infectious disease pandemics can overwhelm adaptive coping capacity (e.g., general self-efficacy and resilience) and increase the risk for mental distress. For individuals experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV) and cohabitating with a perpetrator, stay-at-home orders can also increase risk of violence, which can further exacerbate mental distress. The present study explores women's perceived self-efficacy and resilient coping, mental health outcomes (depression and COVID-19 related anxiety), hazardous alcohol use and IPV in the context of Uganda's national 2020 lockdown. METHODS: A phone-based survey was undertaken from June-August of 2020 in Wakiso District, Uganda. The study sample consisted of Africa Medical and Behavioral Sciences Organization (AMBSO) Population Health Surveillance (APHS) study participants who agreed to be contacted for future research. The analytic sample was restricted to women aged 13-80 years. Bivariate analysis and multivariable models explored associations between experiences of IPV and measures of adaptive coping, mental health and alcohol use. RESULTS: A total of 556 women aged 13-79 years (mean age of 33.4 years) participated. Over half (55%) were currently married. The majority (60%) reported a decrease in alcohol use during the lockdown. Nearly half of the sample were experiencing physical or verbal IPV and reported an increase in violence during the lockdown. In adjusted analysis, alcohol use was associated with four times greater odds of recent physical IPV (aOR 4.06, 95% CI = 1.65-10.02, p = 0.0024), while participants had lower odds of experiencing any form of IPV as general self-efficacy increased (aOR 0.95, 95% CI = 0.91-0.99, p = 0.0308). CONCLUSION: Lockdown measures in Uganda may have mitigated increased alcohol consumption. IPV was exacerbated during lockdown; more than 2 in 5 IPV victims experienced increased physical or verbal violence. Development of programming and policies aimed at mitigating women's risk of IPV during future lockdowns are needed.

Household food insecurity and its association with self-reported male perpetration of intimate partner violence: a survey of two districts in central and western Uganda.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to determine the lifetime prevalence of male-perpetrated intimate partner violence (IPV), and to assess the association with food insecurity, sociodemographic factors and health risk behaviours in Uganda in the year preceding COVID-19-associated lockdowns. DESIGN: Population-based, cross-sectional household survey. SETTING: Urban, semiurban and rural communities of the Wakiso and Hoima districts in Uganda. PARTICIPANTS: A total of N=2014 males aged 13-80 years participated in the survey. The current study included males who reported having ever been in a sexual union and responded to the IPV questions (N=1314). MEASURES: Data were collected face-to-face from May 2018 to July 2019 using an interviewer-mediated questionnaire. Lifetime IPV perpetration was measured as 'no physical and/or sexual IPV', 'physical' versus 'sexual violence only', and 'physical and sexual violence'. Past-year food insecurity was measured through the Food Insecurity Experience Scale and categorised into 'none', 'low' and 'high'. Multinomial logistic regression was used to determine the crude and adjusted relative risk ratios (aRRRs) of IPV perpetration in relation to self-reported food insecurity, adjusting for sociodemographic and health risk behaviours. RESULTS: The prevalence of self-reported lifetime IPV perpetration was 14.6% for physical and 6.5% for sexual violence, while 5.3% reported to have perpetrated both physical and sexual IPV. Most (75.7%) males reported no food insecurity, followed by low (20.7%) and high (3.6%) food insecurity. In adjusted models, food insecurity was associated with increased risk of having perpetrated both physical and sexual violence (aRRR=2.57, 95% CI 1.52 to 4.32). IPV perpetration was also independently associated with having had more than one lifetime sexual partner and drinking alcohol, but not with education level or religion. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that food insecurity is associated with male IPV perpetration, and more efforts are needed to prevent and mitigate the expected worsening of this situation as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.

The number of procedures required to achieve optimal competency with male circumcision: findings from a randomized trial in Rakai, Uganda.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the number of procedures required to achieve optimal competency (time required for surgery with minimal adverse events) in Rakai, Uganda, and thus facilitate the development of guidelines for training providers, as male circumcision reduces the acquisition of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in men and is recommended for HIV prevention. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In a randomized trial, 3011 men were circumcised, using the sleeve method, by six physicians who had completed training, which included 15-20 supervised procedures. The duration of surgery from local anaesthesia to wound closure, moderate or severe surgery-related adverse events (AEs), and wound healing were assessed in relation to the number of procedures done by each physician. RESULTS: The median age of the patients was 24 years. The number of procedures per surgeon was 20-981. The mean time required to complete surgery was approximately 40 min for the first 100 procedures and declined to 25 min for the subsequent 100 circumcisions. After controlling for the number of procedures there was no significant difference in duration of the surgery by patient HIV status or age. The rate of moderate and severe AEs was 8.8% (10/114) for the first 19 unsupervised procedures after training, 4.0% for the next 20-99 (13/328) and 2.0% for the last 100 (P for trend, 0.003). All AEs resolved with management. CONCLUSION: The completion of more than 100 circumcisions was required before newly trained physicians achieved the optimum duration of surgery. AEs were higher immediately after training and additional supervision is needed for at least the first 20 procedures after completing training.

Sexual satisfaction of women partners of circumcised men in a randomized trial of male circumcision in Rakai, Uganda.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of adult medical male circumcision on female sexual satisfaction. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: We investigated self-reported sexual satisfaction among 455 women partners of men circumcised in a randomized trial of male circumcision for the prevention of human immunodeficiency virus in Rakai, Uganda. Women aged 15-49 years were interviewed about their sexual satisfaction before and after their partners were circumcised. We analysed female-reported changes in sexual satisfaction using chi-square or Fisher's exact tests. RESULTS: Only 2.9% (13/455) of women reported less sexual satisfaction after their partners were circumcised; 57.3% (255/455) reported no change in sexual satisfaction and 39.8% (177/455) reported an improvement in sexual satisfaction after their partner's circumcision. There were no statistically significant differences in sexual satisfaction before and after partner's circumcision by age, religion and education status. CONCLUSION: The overwhelming majority of women (97.1%) report either no change or improved sexual satisfaction after their male partner was circumcised. These findings suggest that male circumcision has no deleterious effect on female sexual satisfaction.

The safety of adult male circumcision in HIV-infected and uninfected men in Rakai, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: The objective of the study was to compare rates of adverse events (AEs) related to male circumcision (MC) in HIV-positive and HIV-negative men in order to provide guidance for MC programs that may provide services to HIV-infected and uninfected men. METHODS AND FINDINGS: A total of 2,326 HIV-negative and 420 HIV-positive men (World Health Organization [WHO] stage I or II and CD4 counts > 350 cells/mm3) were circumcised in two separate but procedurally identical trials of MC for HIV and/or sexually transmitted infection prevention in rural Rakai, Uganda. Participants were followed at 1-2 d and 5-9 d, and at 4-6 wk, to assess surgery-related AEs, wound healing, and resumption of intercourse. AE risks and wound healing were compared in HIV-positive and HIV-negative men. Adjusted odds ratios (AdjORs) were estimated by multiple logistic regression, adjusting for baseline characteristics and postoperative resumption of sex. At enrollment, HIV-positive men were older, more likely to be married, reported more sexual partners, less condom use, and higher rates of sexually transmitted disease symptoms than HIV-negative men. Risks of moderate or severe AEs were 3.1/100 and 3.5/100 in HIV-positive and HIV-negative participants, respectively (AdjOR 0.91, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.47-1.74). Infections were the most common AEs (2.6/100 in HIV-positive versus 3.0/100 in HIV-negative men). Risks of other complications were similar in the two groups. The proportion with completed healing by 6 wk postsurgery was 92.7% in HIV-positive men and 95.8% in HIV-negative men (p = 0.007). AEs were more common in men who resumed intercourse before wound healing compared to those who waited (AdjOR 1.56, 95% CI 1.05-2.33). CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the safety of MC was comparable in asymptomatic HIV-positive and HIV-negative men, although healing was somewhat slower among the HIV infected. All men should be strongly counseled to refrain from intercourse until full wound healing is achieved. TRIAL REGISTRATION: http://www.ClinicalTrials.gov; for HIV-negative men #NCT00425984 and for HIV-positive men, #NCT000124878.

The safety and acceptance of the PrePex device for non-surgical adult male circumcision in Rakai, Uganda. A non-randomized observational study.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the safety and acceptance of the PrePex device for medical male circumcision (MMC) in rural Uganda. METHODS: In an observational study, HIV-uninfected, uncircumcised men aged 18 and older who requested elective MMC were informed about the PrePex and dorsal slit methods and offered a free choice of their preferred procedure. 100 men received PrePex to assess preliminary safety (aim 1). An additional 329 men, 250 chose PrePex and 79 chose Dorsal slit, were enrolled following approval by the Safety Monitoring Committee (aim 2). Men were followed up at 7 days to assess adverse events (AEs) and to remove the PrePex device. Wound healing was assessed at 4 weeks, with subsequent weekly follow up until completed healing. RESULTS: The PrePex device was contraindicated in 5.7% of men due to a tight prepuce or phimosis/adhesions. Among 429 enrolled men 350 (82.0%) got the PrePex device and 79 (18.0%) the dorsal slit procedure. 250 of 329 men (76.0%) who were invited to choose between the 2 procedures chose Prepex. There were 9 AEs (2.6%) with the PrePex, of which 5 (1.4%) were severe complications, 4 due to patient self-removal of the device leading to edema and urinary obstruction requiring emergency surgical circumcision, and one due to wound dehiscence following device removal. 71.8% of men reported an unpleasant odor prior to PrePex removal. Cumulative rates of completed wound healing with the PrePex were 56.7% at week 4, 84.8% week 5, 97.6% week 6 and 98.6% week 7, compared to 98.7% at week 4 with dorsal slit (p<0.0001). CONCLUSION: The PrePex device was well accepted, but healing was slower than with dorsal slit surgery. Severe complications, primarily following PrePex self-removal, required rapid access to emergency surgical facilities. The need to return for removal and delayed healing may increase Program cost and client burden.

Effects of medical male circumcision (MC) on plasma HIV viral load in HIV+ HAART naïve men; Rakai, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Medical male circumcision (MC) of HIV-infected men may increase plasma HIV viral load and place female partners at risk of infection. We assessed the effect of MC on plasma HIV viral load in HIV-infected men in Rakai, Uganda. METHODS: 195 consenting HIV-positive, HAART naïve men aged 12 and above provided blood for plasma HIV viral load testing before surgery and weekly for six weeks and at 2 and 3 months post surgery. Data were also collected on baseline social demographic characteristics and CD4 counts. Change in log10 plasma viral load between baseline and follow-up visits was estimated using paired t tests and multivariate generalized estimating equation (GEE). RESULTS: Of the 195 men, 129 had a CD4 count ≧ 350 and 66 had CD4 <350 cells/mm3. Men with CD4 counts <350 had higher baseline mean log10 plasma viral load than those with CD4 counts ≧ 350 cells/mm3 (4.715 vs 4.217 cps/mL, respectively, p = 0.0005). Compared to baseline, there was no statistically significant increase in post-MC HIV plasma viral loads irrespective of CD4. Multivariate analysis showed that higher baseline log10 plasma viral load was significantly associated with reduction in mean log10 plasma viral load following MC (coef.  = -0.134, p<0.001). CONCLUSION: We observed no increase in plasma HIV viral load following MC in HIV-infected, HAART naïve men.

Designing and usage of a low-cost penile model for male medical circumcision skills training in Rakai, Uganda.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the designing and usage of a locally made low-cost penile model used for male medical circumcision (MMC) skills training. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The Rakai MMC training team has experienced a number of challenges during conduct of MMC skills training, one of which was the lack of a model to use for MMC skills training. To address this challenge, the Rakai MMC skills training team has designed and developed a low-cost penile model for use in MMC skills training. RESULTS: The model has been successfully used to demonstrate external penile anatomy, to describe the biological mechanisms through which male circumcision (MC) prevents HIV acquisition, and for demonstration and practice of the MMC procedures. CONCLUSIONS: With an initial cost of only $10 and a recurrent cost of $5, this is a cost-efficient and useful penile model that provides a simulation of normal penile anatomy for use in MC training in resource-limited settings. It has also been used as a visual aid in preoperative education of patients before receiving male circumcision. The model can be improved and scaled up to develop cheaper commercial penile models.