Inflammatory response to retrotransposons drives tumor drug resistance that can be prevented by reverse transcriptase inhibitors.

Activation of endogenous retrotransposons frequently occurs in cancer cells and contributes to tumor genomic instability. To test whether inhibition of retrotranspositions has an anticancer effect, we used treatment with the nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) stavudine (STV) in mouse cancer models, MMTV-HER2/Neu and Th-MYCN, that spontaneously develop breast cancer and neuroblastoma, respectively. In both cases, STV in drinking water did not affect tumor incidence nor demonstrate direct antitumor effects. However, STV dramatically extended progression-free survival in both models following an initial complete response to chemotherapy. To approach the mechanism underlying this phenomenon, we analyzed the effect of NRTI on the selection of treatment-resistant variants in tumor cells in culture. Cultivation of mouse breast carcinoma 4T1 in the presence of STV dramatically reduced the frequency of cells capable of surviving treatment with anticancer drugs. Global transcriptome analysis demonstrated that the acquisition of drug resistance by 4T1 cells was accompanied by an increase in the constitutive activity of interferon type I and NF-κB pathways and an elevated expression of LINE-1 elements, which are known to induce inflammatory responses via their products of reverse transcription. Treatment with NRTI reduced NF-κB activity and reverted drug resistance. Furthermore, the inducible expression of LINE-1 stimulated inflammatory response and increased the frequency of drug-resistant variants in a tumor cell population. These results indicate a mechanism by which retrotransposon desilencing can stimulate tumor cell survival during treatment and suggest reverse transcriptase inhibition as a potential therapeutic approach for targeting the development of drug-resistant cancers.

Phase 1 study of high-dose DFMO, celecoxib, cyclophosphamide and topotecan for patients with relapsed neuroblastoma: a New Approaches to Neuroblastoma Therapy trial.

BACKGROUND: MYC genes regulate ornithine decarboxylase (Odc) to increase intratumoral polyamines. We conducted a Phase I trial [NCT02030964] to determine the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) of DFMO, an Odc inhibitor, with celecoxib, cyclophosphamide and topotecan. METHODS: Patients 2-30 years of age with relapsed/refractory high-risk neuroblastoma received oral DFMO at doses up to 9000 mg/m2/day, with celecoxib (500 mg/m2 daily), cyclophosphamide (250 mg/m2/day) and topotecan (0.75 mg/m2/day) IV for 5 days, for up to one year with G-CSF support. RESULTS: Twenty-four patients (median age, 6.8 years) received 136 courses. Slow platelet recovery with 21-day courses (dose-levels 1 and 2) led to subsequent dose-levels using 28-day courses (dose-levels 2a-4a). There were three course-1 dose-limiting toxicities (DLTs; hematologic; anorexia; transaminases), and 23 serious adverse events (78% fever-related). Five patients (21%) completed 1-year of therapy. Nine stopped for PD, 2 for DLT, 8 by choice. Best overall response included two PR and four MR. Median time-to-progression was 19.8 months, and 3 patients remained progression-free at >4 years without receiving additional therapy. The MTD of DFMO with this regimen was 6750 mg/m2/day. CONCLUSION: High-dose DFMO is tolerable when added to chemotherapy in heavily pre-treated patients. A randomized Phase 2 trial of DFMO added to chemoimmunotherapy is ongoing [NCT03794349].

Inhibition of mitochondrial translocase SLC25A5 and histone deacetylation is an effective combination therapy in neuroblastoma.

The mitochondrion is a gatekeeper of apoptotic processes, and mediates drug resistance to several chemotherapy agents used to treat cancer. Neuroblastoma is a common solid cancer in young children with poor clinical outcomes following conventional chemotherapy. We sought druggable mitochondrial protein targets in neuroblastoma cells. Among mitochondria-associated gene targets, we found that high expression of the mitochondrial adenine nucleotide translocase 2 (SLC25A5/ANT2), was a strong predictor of poor neuroblastoma patient prognosis and contributed to a more malignant phenotype in pre-clinical models. Inhibiting this transporter with PENAO reduced cell viability in a panel of neuroblastoma cell lines in a TP53-status-dependant manner. We identified the histone deacetylase inhibitor, suberanilohydroxamic acid (SAHA), as the most effective drug in clinical use against mutant TP53 neuroblastoma cells. SAHA and PENAO synergistically reduced cell viability, and induced apoptosis, in neuroblastoma cells independent of TP53-status. The SAHA and PENAO drug combination significantly delayed tumour progression in pre-clinical neuroblastoma mouse models, suggesting that these clinically advanced inhibitors may be effective in treating the disease.

Mitotic Dysregulation at Tumor Initiation Creates a Therapeutic Vulnerability to Combination Anti-Mitotic and Pro-Apoptotic Agents for MYCN-Driven Neuroblastoma.

MYCN amplification occurs in approximately 20-30% of neuroblastoma patients and correlates with poor prognosis. The TH-MYCN transgenic mouse model mimics the development of human high-risk neuroblastoma and provides strong evidence for the oncogenic function of MYCN. In this study, we identified mitotic dysregulation as a hallmark of tumor initiation in the pre-cancerous ganglia from TH-MYCN mice that persists through tumor progression. Single-cell quantitative-PCR of coeliac ganglia from 10-day-old TH-MYCN mice revealed overexpression of mitotic genes in a subpopulation of premalignant neuroblasts at a level similar to single cells derived from established tumors. Prophylactic treatment using antimitotic agents barasertib and vincristine significantly delayed the onset of tumor formation, reduced pre-malignant neuroblast hyperplasia, and prolonged survival in TH-MYCN mice. Analysis of human neuroblastoma tumor cohorts showed a strong correlation between dysregulated mitosis and features of MYCN amplification, such as MYC(N) transcriptional activity, poor overall survival, and other clinical predictors of aggressive disease. To explore the therapeutic potential of targeting mitotic dysregulation, we showed that genetic and chemical inhibition of mitosis led to selective cell death in neuroblastoma cell lines with MYCN over-expression. Moreover, combination therapy with antimitotic compounds and BCL2 inhibitors exploited mitotic stress induced by antimitotics and was synergistically toxic to neuroblastoma cell lines. These results collectively suggest that mitotic dysregulation is a key component of tumorigenesis in early neuroblasts, which can be inhibited by the combination of antimitotic compounds and pro-apoptotic compounds in MYCN-driven neuroblastoma.

Whole-genome sequencing facilitates patient-specific quantitative PCR-based minimal residual disease monitoring in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, neuroblastoma and Ewing sarcoma.

BACKGROUND: Minimal residual disease (MRD) measurement is a cornerstone of contemporary acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) treatment. The presence of immunoglobulin (Ig) and T cell receptor (TCR) gene recombinations in leukaemic clones allows widespread use of patient-specific, DNA-based MRD assays. In contrast, paediatric solid tumour MRD remains experimental and has focussed on generic assays targeting tumour-specific messenger RNA, methylated DNA or microRNA. METHODS: We examined the feasibility of using whole-genome sequencing (WGS) data to design tumour-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based MRD tests (WGS-MRD) in 18 children with high-risk relapsed cancer, including ALL, high-risk neuroblastoma (HR-NB) and Ewing sarcoma (EWS) (n = 6 each). RESULTS: Sensitive WGS-MRD assays were generated for each patient and allowed quantitation of 1 tumour cell per 10-4 (0.01%)-10-5 (0.001%) mononuclear cells. In ALL, WGS-MRD and Ig/TCR-MRD were highly concordant. WGS-MRD assays also showed good concordance between quantitative PCR and droplet digital PCR formats. In serial clinical samples, WGS-MRD correlated with disease course. In solid tumours, WGS-MRD assays were more sensitive than RNA-MRD assays. CONCLUSIONS: WGS facilitated the development of patient-specific MRD tests in ALL, HR-NB and EWS with potential clinical utility in monitoring treatment response. WGS data could be used to design patient-specific MRD assays in a broad range of tumours.

Measurable residual disease analysis in paediatric acute lymphoblastic leukaemia patients with ABL-class fusions.

BACKGROUND: ABL-class fusions including NUP214-ABL1 and EBF1-PDGFRB occur in high risk acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) with gene expression patterns similar to BCR-ABL-positive ALL. Our aim was to evaluate new DNA-based measurable residual disease (MRD) tests detecting these fusions and IKZF1-deletions in comparison with conventional immunoglobulin/T-cell receptor (Ig/TCR) markers. METHODS: Precise genomic breakpoints were defined from targeted or whole genome next generation sequencing for ABL-fusions and BCR-ABL1. Quantitative PCR assays were designed and used to re-measure MRD in remission bone marrow samples previously tested using Ig/TCR markers. All MRD testing complied with EuroMRD guidelines. RESULTS: ABL-class patients had 46% 5year event-free survival and 79% 5year overall survival. All had sensitive fusion tests giving high concordance between Ig/TCR and ABL-class fusion results (21 patients, n = 257 samples, r2 = 0.9786, P < 0.0001) and Ig/TCR and IKZF1-deletion results (9 patients, n = 143 samples, r2 = 0.9661, P < 0.0001). In contrast, in BCR-ABL1 patients, Ig/TCR and BCR-ABL1 tests were discordant in 32% (40 patients, n = 346 samples, r2 = 0.4703, P < 0.0001) and IKZF1-deletion results were closer to Ig/TCR (25 patients, n = 176, r2 = 0.8631, P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: MRD monitoring based on patient-specific assays detecting gene fusions or recurrent assays for IKZF1-deletions is feasible and provides good alternatives to Ig/TCR tests to monitor MRD in ABL-class ALL.

Exploiting the reactive oxygen species imbalance in high-risk paediatric acute lymphoblastic leukaemia through auranofin.

BACKGROUND: The prognosis for high-risk childhood acute leukaemias remains dismal and established treatment protocols often cause long-term side effects in survivors. This study aims to identify more effective and safer therapeutics for these patients. METHODS: A high-throughput phenotypic screen of a library of 3707 approved drugs and pharmacologically active compounds was performed to identify compounds with selective cytotoxicity against leukaemia cells followed by further preclinical evaluation in patient-derived xenograft models. RESULTS: Auranofin, an FDA-approved agent for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, was identified as exerting selective anti-cancer activity against leukaemia cells, including patient-derived xenograft cells from children with high-risk ALL, versus solid tumour and non-cancerous cells. It induced apoptosis in leukaemia cells by increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and potentiated the activity of the chemotherapeutic cytarabine against highly aggressive models of infant MLL-rearranged ALL by enhancing DNA damage accumulation. The enhanced sensitivity of leukaemia cells towards auranofin was associated with lower basal levels of the antioxidant glutathione and higher baseline ROS levels compared to solid tumour cells. CONCLUSIONS: Our study highlights auranofin as a well-tolerated drug candidate for high-risk paediatric leukaemias that warrants further preclinical investigation for application in high-risk paediatric and adult acute leukaemias.

Potent antileukemic activity of curaxin CBL0137 against MLL-rearranged leukemia.

Around 10% of acute leukemias harbor a rearrangement of the MLL/KMT2A gene, and the presence of this translocation results in a highly aggressive, therapy-resistant leukemia subtype with survival rates below 50%. There is a high unmet need to identify safer and more potent therapies for MLL-rearranged (MLL-r) leukemia that can be combined with established chemotherapeutics to decrease treatment-related toxicities. The curaxin, CBL0137, has demonstrated nongenotoxic anticancer and chemopotentiating effects in a number of preclinical cancer models and is currently in adult Phase I clinical trials for solid tumors and hematological malignancies. The aim of our study was to investigate whether CBL0137 has potential as a therapeutic and chemopotentiating compound in MLL-r leukemia through a comprehensive analysis of its efficacy in preclinical models of the disease. CBL0137 decreased the viability of a panel of MLL-r leukemia cell lines (n = 12) and xenograft cells derived from patients with MLL-r acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL, n = 3) in vitro with submicromolar IC50s. The small molecule drug was well-tolerated in vivo and significantly reduced leukemia burden in a subcutaneous MV4;11 MLL-r acute myeloid leukemia model and in patient-derived xenograft models of MLL-r ALL (n = 5). The in vivo efficacy of standard of care drugs used in remission induction for pediatric ALL was also potentiated by CBL0137. CBL0137 exerted its anticancer effect by trapping Facilitator of Chromatin Transcription (FACT) into chromatin, activating the p53 pathway and inducing an Interferon response. Our findings support further preclinical evaluation of CBL0137 as a new approach for the treatment of MLL-r leukemia.

ABCC4/MRP4 contributes to the aggressiveness of Myc-associated epithelial ovarian cancer.

Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is a complex disease comprising discrete histological and molecular subtypes, for which survival rates remain unacceptably low. Tailored approaches for this deadly heterogeneous disease are urgently needed. Efflux pumps belonging to the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) family of transporters are known for roles in both drug resistance and cancer biology and are also highly targetable. Here we have investigated the association of ABCC4/MRP4 expression to clinical outcome and its biological function in endometrioid and serous tumors, common histological subtypes of EOC. We found high expression of ABCC4/MRP4, previously shown to be directly regulated by c-Myc/N-Myc, was associated with poor prognosis in endometrioid EOC (P = .001) as well as in a subset of serous EOC with a "high-MYCN" profile (C5/proliferative; P = .019). Transient siRNA-mediated suppression of MRP4 in EOC cells led to reduced growth, migration and invasion, with the effects being most pronounced in endometrioid and C5-like serous cells compared to non-C5 serous EOC cells. Sustained knockdown of MRP4 also sensitized endometrioid cells to MRP4 substrate drugs. Furthermore, suppression of MRP4 decreased the growth of patient-derived EOC cells in vivo. Together, our findings provide the first evidence that MRP4 plays an important role in the biology of Myc-associated ovarian tumors and highlight this transporter as a potential therapeutic target for EOC.

Accelerating development of high-risk neuroblastoma patient-derived xenograft models for preclinical testing and personalised therapy.

BACKGROUND: Predictive preclinical models play an important role in the assessment of new treatment strategies and as avatar models for personalised medicine; however, reliable and timely model generation is challenging. We investigated the feasibility of establishing patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models of high-risk neuroblastoma from a range of tumour-bearing patient materials and assessed approaches to improve engraftment efficiency. METHODS: PDX model development was attempted in NSG mice by using tumour materials from 12 patients, including primary and metastatic solid tumour samples, bone marrow, pleural fluid and residual cells from cytogenetic analysis. Subcutaneous, intramuscular and orthotopic engraftment were directly compared for three patients. RESULTS: PDX models were established for 44% (4/9) of patients at diagnosis and 100% (5/5) at relapse. In one case, attempted engraftment from pleural fluid resulted in an EBV-associated atypical lymphoid proliferation. Xenogeneic graft versus host disease was observed with attempted engraftment from lymph node and bone marrow tumour samples but could be prevented by T-cell depletion. Orthotopic engraftment was more efficient than subcutaneous or intramuscular engraftment. CONCLUSIONS: High-risk neuroblastoma PDX models can be reliably established from diverse sample types. Orthotopic implantation allows more rapid model development, increasing the likelihood of developing an avatar model within a clinically useful timeframe.

A risk score including microdeletions improves relapse prediction for standard and medium risk precursor B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in children.

To prevent relapse, high risk paediatric acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) is treated very intensively. However, most patients who eventually relapse have standard or medium risk ALL with low minimal residual disease (MRD) levels. We analysed recurrent microdeletions and other clinical prognostic factors in a cohort of 475 uniformly treated non-high risk precursor B-cell ALL patients with the aim of better predicting relapse and refining risk stratification. Lower relapse-free survival at 7 years (RFS) was associated with IKZF1 intragenic deletions (P < 0·0001); P2RY8-CRLF2 gene fusion (P < 0·0004); Day 33 MRD>5 × 10-5 (P < 0·0001) and High National Cancer Institute (NCI) risk (P < 0·0001). We created a predictive model based on a risk score (RS) for deletions, MRD and NCI risk, extending from an RS of 0 (RS0) for patients with no unfavourable factors to RS2 +  for patients with 2 or 3 high risk factors. RS0, RS1, and RS2 +  groups had RFS of 93%, 78% and 49%, respectively, and overall survival (OS) of 99%, 91% and 71%. The RS provided greater discrimination than MRD-based risk stratification into standard (89% RFS, 96% OS) and medium risk groups (79% RFS, 91% OS). We conclude that this RS may enable better early therapeutic stratification and thus improve cure rates for childhood ALL.

ABC transporters as mediators of drug resistance and contributors to cancer cell biology.

The extrusion of anticancer drugs by members of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter family is one of the most widely recognized mechanisms of multidrug resistance, and can be considered a hijacking of their normal roles in the transport of xenobiotics, metabolites and signaling molecules across cell membranes. While roles in cancer multidrug resistance have been clearly demonstrated for P-glycoprotein (P-gp), Breast Cancer Resistance Protein (BCRP) and Multidrug Resistance Protein 1 (MRP1), direct evidence for a role in multidrug resistance in vivo is lacking for other family members. A less well understood but emerging theme is the drug efflux-independent contributions of ABC transporters to cancer biology, supported by a growing body of evidence that their loss or inhibition impacts on the malignant potential of cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. As with multidrug resistance, these contributions likely represent a hijacking of normal ABC transporter functions in the efflux of endogenous metabolites and signaling molecules, however they may expand the clinical relevance of ABC transporters beyond P-gp, BCRP and MRP1. This review summarizes established and emerging roles for ABC transporters in cancer, with a focus on neuroblastoma and ovarian cancer, and considers approaches to validate and better understand these roles.

GPR84 sustains aberrant ß-catenin signaling in leukemic stem cells for maintenance of MLL leukemogenesis.

ß-catenin is required for establishment of leukemic stem cells (LSCs) in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Targeted inhibition of ß-catenin signaling has been hampered by the lack of pathway components amenable to pharmacologic manipulation. Here we identified a novel ß-catenin regulator, GPR84, a member of the G protein-coupled receptor family that represents a highly tractable class of drug targets. High GPR84 expression levels were confirmed in human and mouse AML LSCs compared with hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Suppression of GPR84 significantly inhibited cell growth by inducing G1-phase cell-cycle arrest in pre-LSCs, reduced LSC frequency, and impaired reconstitution of stem cell-derived mixed-lineage leukemia (MLL) AML, which represents an aggressive and drug-resistant subtype of AML. The GPR84-deficient phenotype in established AML could be rescued by expression of constitutively active ß-catenin. Furthermore, GPR84 conferred a growth advantage to Hoxa9/Meis1a-transduced stem cells. Microarray analysis demonstrated that GPR84 significantly upregulated a small set of MLL-fusion targets and ß-catenin coeffectors, and downregulated a hematopoietic cell-cycle inhibitor. Altogether, our data reveal a previously unrecognized role of GPR84 in maintaining fully developed AML by sustaining aberrant ß-catenin signaling in LSCs, and suggest that targeting the oncogenic GPR84/ß-catenin signaling axis may represent a novel therapeutic strategy for AML.

Persistent MRD before and after allogeneic BMT predicts relapse in children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia.

Minimal residual disease (MRD) during early chemotherapy is a powerful predictor of relapse in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) and is used in children to determine eligibility for allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) in first (CR1) or later complete remission (CR2/CR3). Variables affecting HSCT outcome were analysed in 81 children from the ANZCHOG ALL8 trial. The major cause of treatment failure was relapse, with a cumulative incidence of relapse at 5 years (CIR) of 32% and treatment-related mortality of 8%. Leukaemia-free survival (LFS) and overall survival (OS) were similar for HSCT in CR1 (LFS 62%, OS 83%, n = 41) or CR2/CR3 (LFS 60%, OS 72%, n = 40). Patients achieving bone marrow MRD negativity pre-HSCT had better outcomes (LFS 83%, OS 92%) than those with persistent MRD pre-HSCT (LFS 41%, OS 64%, P < 0·0001) or post-HSCT (LFS 35%, OS 55%, P < 0·0001). Patients with B-other ALL had more relapses (CIR 50%, LFS 41%) than T-ALL and the main precursor-B subtypes including BCR-ABL1, KMT2A (MLL), ETV6-RUNX1 (TEL-AML1) and hyperdiploidy >50. A Cox multivariate regression model for LFS retained both B-other ALL subtype (hazard ratio 4·1, P = 0·0062) and MRD persistence post-HSCT (hazard ratio 3·9, P = 0·0070) as independent adverse prognostic variables. Persistent MRD could be used to direct post-HSCT therapy.

SIRT1 promotes N-Myc oncogenesis through a positive feedback loop involving the effects of MKP3 and ERK on N-Myc protein stability.

The N-Myc oncoprotein is a critical factor in neuroblastoma tumorigenesis which requires additional mechanisms converting a low-level to a high-level N-Myc expression. N-Myc protein is stabilized when phosphorylated at Serine 62 by phosphorylated ERK protein. Here we describe a novel positive feedback loop whereby N-Myc directly induced the transcription of the class III histone deacetylase SIRT1, which in turn increased N-Myc protein stability. SIRT1 binds to Myc Box I domain of N-Myc protein to form a novel transcriptional repressor complex at gene promoter of mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase 3 (MKP3), leading to transcriptional repression of MKP3, ERK protein phosphorylation, N-Myc protein phosphorylation at Serine 62, and N-Myc protein stabilization. Importantly, SIRT1 was up-regulated, MKP3 down-regulated, in pre-cancerous cells, and preventative treatment with the SIRT1 inhibitor Cambinol reduced tumorigenesis in TH-MYCN transgenic mice. Our data demonstrate the important roles of SIRT1 in N-Myc oncogenesis and SIRT1 inhibitors in the prevention and therapy of N-Myc-induced neuroblastoma.

FDA-approved disulfiram as a novel treatment for aggressive leukemia.

Acute leukemia continues to be a major cause of death from disease worldwide and current chemotherapeutic agents are associated with significant morbidity in survivors. While better and safer treatments for acute leukemia are urgently needed, standard drug development pipelines are lengthy and drug repurposing therefore provides a promising approach. Our previous evaluation of FDA-approved drugs for their antileukemic activity identified disulfiram, used for the treatment of alcoholism, as a candidate hit compound. This study assessed the biological effects of disulfiram on leukemia cells and evaluated its potential as a treatment strategy. We found that disulfiram inhibits the viability of a diverse panel of acute lymphoblastic and myeloid leukemia cell lines (n = 16) and patient-derived xenograft cells from patients with poor outcome and treatment-resistant disease (n = 15). The drug induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in leukemia cells within hours of treatment and was able to potentiate the effects of daunorubicin, etoposide, topotecan, cytarabine, and mitoxantrone chemotherapy. Upon combining disulfiram with auranofin, a drug approved for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis that was previously shown to exert antileukemic effects, strong and consistent synergy was observed across a diverse panel of acute leukemia cell lines, the mechanism of which was based on enhanced ROS induction. Acute leukemia cells were more sensitive to the cytotoxic activity of disulfiram than solid cancer cell lines and non-malignant cells. While disulfiram is currently under investigation in clinical trials for solid cancers, this study provides evidence for the potential of disulfiram for acute leukemia treatment. KEY MESSAGES: Disulfiram induces rapid apoptosis in leukemia cells by boosting oxidative stress. Disulfiram inhibits leukemia cell growth more potently than solid cancer cell growth. Disulfiram can enhance the antileukemic efficacy of chemotherapies. Disulfiram strongly synergises with auranofin in killing acute leukemia cells by ROS induction. We propose testing of disulfiram in clinical trial for patients with acute leukemia.

The transcriptional co-repressor Runx1t1 is essential for MYCN-driven neuroblastoma tumorigenesis.

MYCN oncogene amplification is frequently observed in aggressive childhood neuroblastoma. Using an unbiased large-scale mutagenesis screen in neuroblastoma-prone transgenic mice, we identify a single germline point mutation in the transcriptional corepressor Runx1t1, which abolishes MYCN-driven tumorigenesis. This loss-of-function mutation disrupts a highly conserved zinc finger domain within Runx1t1. Deletion of one Runx1t1 allele in an independent Runx1t1 knockout mouse model is also sufficient to prevent MYCN-driven neuroblastoma development, and reverse ganglia hyperplasia, a known pre-requisite for tumorigenesis. Silencing RUNX1T1 in human neuroblastoma cells decreases colony formation in vitro, and inhibits tumor growth in vivo. Moreover, RUNX1T1 knockdown inhibits the viability of PAX3-FOXO1 fusion-driven rhabdomyosarcoma and MYC-driven small cell lung cancer cells. Despite the role of Runx1t1 in MYCN-driven tumorigenesis neither gene directly regulates the other. We show RUNX1T1 forms part of a transcriptional LSD1-CoREST3-HDAC repressive complex recruited by HAND2 to enhancer regions to regulate chromatin accessibility and cell-fate pathway genes.

Golgi-localized Ring Finger Protein 121 is necessary for MYCN-driven neuroblastoma tumorigenesis.

MYCN amplification predicts poor prognosis in childhood neuroblastoma. To identify MYCN oncogenic signal dependencies we performed N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) mutagenesis on the germline of neuroblastoma-prone TH-MYCN transgenic mice to generate founders which had lost tumorigenesis. Sequencing of the mutant mouse genomes identified the Ring Finger Protein 121 (RNF121WT) gene mutated to RNFM158R associated with heritable loss of tumorigenicity. While the RNF121WT protein localised predominantly to the cis-Golgi Complex, the RNF121M158R mutation in Helix 4 of its transmembrane domain caused reduced RNF121 protein stability and absent Golgi localisation. RNF121WT expression markedly increased during TH-MYCN tumorigenesis, whereas hemizygous RNF121WT gene deletion reduced TH-MYCN tumorigenicity. The RNF121WT-enhanced growth of MYCN-amplified neuroblastoma cells depended on RNF121WT transmembrane Helix 5. RNF121WT directly bound MYCN protein and enhanced its stability. High RNF121 mRNA expression associated with poor prognosis in human neuroblastoma tissues and another MYC-driven malignancy, laryngeal cancer. RNF121 is thus an essential oncogenic cofactor for MYCN and a target for drug development.

TRIM16 overexpression induces apoptosis through activation of caspase-2 in cancer cells.

TRIM16 exhibits tumour suppressor functions by interacting with cytoplasmic vimentin and nuclear E2F1 proteins in neuroblastoma and squamous cell carcinoma cells, reducing cell migration and replication. Reduced TRIM16 expression in a range of human primary malignant tissues correlates with increased malignant potential. TRIM16 also induces apoptosis in breast and lung cancer cells, by unknown mechanisms. Here we show that overexpression of TRIM16 induces apoptosis in human breast cancer (MCF7) and neuroblastoma (BE(2)-C) cells, but not in non-malignant HEK293 cells. TRIM16 increased procaspase-2 protein levels in MCF7 and induced caspase-2 activity in both MCF7 and BE(2)-C cells. We show that TRIM16 and caspase-2 proteins directly interact in both MCF7 and BE(2)-C cells and co-localise in MCF7 cells. Most importantly, the induction of caspase-2 activity is required for TRIM16 to initiate apoptosis. Our data suggest a novel mechanism by which TRIM16 can promote apoptosis by directly modulating caspase-2 activity.