Fatty acid preference for beta-oxidation in mitochondria of murine cultured astrocytes.

The brain utilizes glucose as a primary energy substrate but also fatty acids for the ß-oxidation in mitochondria. The ß-oxidation is reported to occur mainly in astrocytes, but its capacity and efficacy against different fatty acids remain unknown. Here, we show the fatty acid preference for the ß-oxidation in mitochondria of murine cultured astrocytes. Fatty acid oxidation assay using an extracellular flux analyzer showed that saturated or monosaturated fatty acids, palmitic acid and oleic acid, are preferred substrates over polyunsaturated fatty acids like arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. We also report that fatty acid binding proteins expressed in the astrocytes contribute less to fatty acid transport to mitochondria for ß-oxidation. Our results could give insight into understanding energy metabolism through fatty acid consumption in the brain.

Genetics of bipolar disorder: insights into its complex architecture and biology from common and rare variants.

Bipolar disorder (BD) is a common mental disorder characterized by recurrent mood episodes, which causes major socioeconomic burdens globally. Though its disease pathogenesis is largely unknown, the high heritability of BD indicates strong contributions from genetic factors. In this review, we summarize the recent achievements in the genetics of BD, particularly those from genome-wide association study (GWAS) of common variants and next-generation sequencing analysis of rare variants. These include the identification of dozens of robust disease-associated loci, deepening of our understanding of the biology of BD, objective description of correlations with other psychiatric disorders and behavioral traits, formulation of methods for predicting disease risk and drug response, and the discovery of a single gene associated with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia spectrum with a large effect size. On the other hand, the findings to date have not yet made a clear contribution to the improvement of clinical psychiatry of BD. We overview the remaining challenges as well as possible paths to resolve them, referring to studies of other major neuropsychiatric disorders.

Integrin expression and extracellular matrix adhesion of septoclasts, pericytes, and endothelial cells at the chondro-osseous junction and the metaphysis of the proximal tibia in young mice.

We previously reported that septoclasts, which are uncalcified growth plate (GP) cartilage matrix-resorbing cells, are derived from pericytes surrounding capillary endothelial cells. Resorption of the GP is assumed to be regulated synchronously by septoclasts, pericytes, and endothelial cells. To reveal the contribution of the extracellular matrix (ECM) to the regulatory mechanisms of septoclastic cartilage resorption, we investigated the spatial correlation between the cells and the ECM in the GP matrix and basement membrane (BM) and investigated the expression of integrins-ECM receptors-in the cells. Septoclasts attached to the transverse septa containing collagen-II/-X at the tip of their processes and to the longitudinal septa containing collagen-II/-X at the spine-like processes extending from their bodies and processes. Collagen-IV and laminin α4 in the BM were sparsely detected between septoclasts and capillary endothelial cells at the chondro-osseous junction (COJ) and were absent in the outer surface of pericytes at the metaphysis. Integrin α1/α2, integrin α1, and integrin α2/α6 were detected in the cell membranes of septoclasts, pericytes, and endothelial cells, respectively. These results suggest that the adhesion between septoclasts and the cartilage ECM forming the scaffolds for cartilage resorption and migration is provided by integrin α2-collagen-II/-X interaction and that the adhesions between the BM and pericytes or endothelial cells are mediated by integrin α1-collagen-IV and integrin α2/α6-laminin interaction, respectively.

Effects of Ndufs4 Deletion on Hearing after Various Acoustic Exposures.

Mitochondrial dysfunction can cause cochlear dysfunction and accelerate noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL). NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) Fe-S protein 4 (Ndufs4) is one of the subunits of mitochondrial complex I and has a role in the assembly and stabilization of complex I. However, the involvement of Ndufs4 in the pathogenesis of NIHL has not been reported. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether Ndufs4 deletion causes vulnerability to noise exposures. The wild-type (WT) and Ndufs4 knockout (KO) mice with C57BL/6J genetic background were used. Cochlear histology and hearing thresholds were assessed after noise exposure at 100 or 86 dB sound pressure level (SPL). Immunostaining showed the widespread expression of Ndufs4 in the cochlea. After noise exposure at 100 dB SPL, auditory brainstem response (ABR) threshold shifts at 4 kHz in Ndufs4 KO mice were significantly higher than that in WT mice. After noise exposure at 86 dB SPL, ABR threshold shifts, wave 1 amplitudes, and the number of synapses in the inner hair cells were not significantly different. RNA sequencing revealed the decreased expression of energy generation-related genes inNdufs4 KO mice. Ndufs4 deficiency accelerates permanent low-frequency threshold shifts after moderate noise exposure.

Fatty acid-binding protein 5 limits the generation of Foxp3+ regulatory T cells through regulating plasmacytoid dendritic cell function in the tumor microenvironment.

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) promote viral elimination by producing large amounts of Type I interferon. Recent studies have shown that pDCs regulate the pathogenesis of diverse inflammatory diseases, such as cancer. Fatty acid-binding protein 5 (FABP5) is a cellular chaperone of long-chain fatty acids that induce biological responses. Although the effects of FABP-mediated lipid metabolism are well studied in various immune cells, its role in pDCs remains unclear. This study, which compares wild-type and Fabp5-/- mice, provides the first evidence that FABP5-mediated lipid metabolism regulates the commitment of pDCs to inflammatory vs tolerogenic gene expression patterns in the tumor microenvironment and in response to toll-like receptor stimulation. Additionally, we demonstrated that FABP5 deficiency in pDCs affects the surrounding cellular environment, and that FABP5 expression in pDCs supports the appropriate generation of regulatory T cells (Tregs). Collectively, our findings reveal that pDC FABP5 acts as an important regulator of tumor immunity by controlling lipid metabolism.

Spatial and chronological localization of septoclasts in the mouse Meckel's cartilage.

Meckel's cartilage (MC) in the first branchial arch of mammals is a transient structure that disappears before birth, except for the most anterior and posterior portions. Recent studies reported that some congenital abnormalities in craniofacial regions are linked with the persistence or dysplasia of MC. However, the mechanisms underlying the resorption of MC have not been elucidated. Cartilage resorption in endochondral ossification is performed by multinuclear osteoclasts/chondroclasts as well as mononuclear septoclasts, which were newly added to the list of cartilage phagocytes. Septoclasts located exclusively at the chondro-osseous junction of the growth plate resorb the uncalcified cartilage matrix. We hypothesized that septoclasts participate in the resorption of MC and attempted to clarify the localization and roles of septoclasts in MC of mouse using a specific immunohistochemistry marker, epidermal type-fatty acid-binding protein (E-FABP/FABP5). E-FABP-immunopositive septoclasts were detected for the first time at the beginning of MC resorption and localized along the resorption surface. Septoclasts of MC in embryonic mice possessed several processes that elongated toward the uncalcified cartilage matrix, expressed cathepsin B, and exhibited characteristic pericapillary localization. Additionally, they localized between hypertrophied cartilage and osteoclasts/chondroclasts in the resorption surface. Confocal laser-scanning microscopy revealed a decrease in the numbers of septoclasts and their processes with the progression of MC disappearance before birth. The present study showed that E-FABP-immunopositive septoclasts participated in the disappearance of MC through the resorption of the uncalcified cartilage matrix and that they have different roles from osteoclasts/chondroclasts.

Functional Analysis of the Transcriptional Regulator IκB-ζ in Intestinal Homeostasis.

BACKGROUND: The Toll-like receptor signaling pathway contributes to the regulation of intestinal homeostasis through interactions with commensal bacteria. Although the transcriptional regulator IκB-ζ can be induced by Toll-like receptor signaling, its role in intestinal homeostasis is still unclear. AIMS: To investigate the role of IκB-ζ in gut homeostasis. METHODS: DSS-administration induced colitis in control and IκB-ζ-deficient mice. The level of immunoglobulins in feces was detected by ELISA. The immunological population in lamina propria (LP) was analyzed by FACS. RESULTS: IκB-ζ-deficient mice showed severe inflammatory diseases with DSS administration in the gut. The level of IgM in the feces after DSS administration was less in IκB-ζ-deficient mice compared to control mice. Upon administration of DSS, IκB-ζ-deficient mice showed exaggerated intestinal inflammation (more IFN-g-producing CD4+ T cells in LP), and antibiotic treatment canceled this inflammatory phenotype. CONCLUSION: IκB-ζ plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis in the gut.

Curcumin analog GO-Y030 boosts the efficacy of anti-PD-1 cancer immunotherapy.

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) in the tumor microenvironment regulate tumor immunity. Programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) is known to be expressed on Tregs and plays crucial roles in suppressing tumor immunity. However, the immune checkpoint inhibitor, anti-PD-1 antibody, is known to promote the proliferation of the Treg population in tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, thereby restricting the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. In this study, we focused on the curcumin analog GO-Y030, an antitumor chemical. GO-Y030 inhibited the immune-suppressive ability of Tregs via metabolic changes in vitro, even in the presence of immune checkpoint inhibitors. Mechanistically, GO-Y030 inhibited the mTOR-S6 axis in Tregs, which plays a pivotal role in their immune-suppressive ability. GO-Y030 also controlled the metabolism in cultured CD4+ T cells in the presence of TGF-ß + IL-6; however, it did not prevent Th17 differentiation. Notably, GO-Y030 significantly inhibited IL-10 production from Th17 cells. In the tumor microenvironment, L-lactate produced by tumors is known to support the suppressive ability of Tregs, and GO-Y030 treatment inhibited L-lactate production via metabolic changes. In addition, experiments in the B16-F10 melanoma mouse model revealed that GO-Y030 helped inhibit the anti-PD-1 immune checkpoint and reduce the Treg population in tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. Thus, GO-Y030 controls the metabolism of both Tregs and tumors and could serve as a booster for anti-immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Expression and enhancement of FABP4 in septoclasts of the growth plate in FABP5-deficient mouse tibiae.

In our previous study, fatty acid-binding protein 5 (FABP5) was expressed in septoclasts with long processes which are considered to resorb uncalcified matrix of the growth plate (GP) cartilage, and no apparent abnormalities were detected in the histo-architecture of the GP of FABP5-deficient (FABP5-/-) mice. Those finding lead us to hypothesize that another FABP can compensate the deletion of FABP5 in septoclasts of its gene-mutant mice. Based on the hypothesis, the present study examined the expression levels of several other FABPs in septoclasts and their morphology in FABP5-/- mouse tibiae. Processes of FABP5-/- septoclasts tend to be shorter than wild septoclasts. FABP4-positive septoclasts in FABP5-/- mice were more numerous than those cells in wild mice.Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ was expressed in FABP4-positive septoclasts of FABP5-/- mice as well as mice administered with GW1929, a PPARγ agonist, suggesting that the occurrence of PPARγ induces an increase of FABP4-positive septoclasts. The present finding suggests that the functional exertion of FABP5 in septoclasts is supplemented by FABP4 in normal and FABP5-/- mice, and that the expression of FABP4 is up-regulated in accompany with PPARγ in FABP5-/- for maintenance of resorptive activity in the GP.

Fatty acid-binding protein 3 controls contact hypersensitivity through regulating skin dermal Vγ4+ γ/δ T cell in a murine model.

BACKGROUND: Fatty acid-binding protein 3 (FABP3) is a cytosolic carrier protein of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and regulates cellular metabolism. However, the physiological functions of FABP3 in immune cells and how FABP3 regulates inflammatory responses remain unclear. METHODS: Contact hypersensitivity (CHS) induced by 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB) and fluorescein isothiocyanate was applied to the skin wild-type and Fabp3-/- mice. Skin inflammation was assessed using FACS, histological, and qPCR analyses. The development of γ/δ T cells was evaluated by a co-culture system with OP9/Dll1 cells in the presence or absence of transgene of FABP3. RESULTS: Fabp3-deficient mice exhibit a more severe phenotype of contact hypersensitivity (CHS) accompanied by infiltration of IL-17-producing Vγ4+ γ/δ T cells that critically control skin inflammation. In Fabp3-/- mice, we found a larger proportion of Vγ4+ γ/δ T cells in the skin, even though the percentage of total γ/δ T cells did not change at steady state. Similarly, juvenile Fabp3-/- mice also contained a higher amount of Vγ4+ γ/δ T cells not only in the skin but in the thymus when compared with wild-type mice. Furthermore, thymic double-negative (DN) cells expressed FABP3, and FABP3 negatively regulates the development of Vγ4+ γ/δ T cells in the thymus. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that FABP3 functions as a negative regulator of skin inflammation through limiting pathogenic Vγ4+ γ/δ T-cell generation in the thymus.

Ligand Bound Fatty Acid Binding Protein 7 (FABP7) Drives Melanoma Cell Proliferation Via Modulation of Wnt/ß-Catenin Signaling.

PURPOSE: Fatty acid-binding protein 7 (FABP7) involved in intracellular lipid dynamics, is highly expressed in melanomas and associated with decreased patient survival. Several studies put FABP7 at the center of melanoma cell proliferation. However, the underlying mechanisms are not well deciphered. This study examines the effects of FABP7 on Wnt/ß-catenin signaling that enhances proliferation in melanoma cells. METHODS: Skmel23 cells with FABP7 silencing and Mel2 cells overexpressed with wild-type FABP7 (FABP7wt) and mutated FABP7 (FABP7mut) were used. Cell proliferation and migration were analyzed by proliferation and wound-healing assay, respectively. Transcriptional activation of the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling was measured by luciferase reporter assay. The effects of a specific FABP7 inhibitor, MF6, on proliferation, migration, and modulation of the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling were examined. RESULTS: FABP7 siRNA knockdown in Skmel23 decreased proliferation and migration, cyclin D1 expression, as well as Wnt/ß-catenin activity. Similarly, FABP7wt overexpression in Mel2 cells increased these effects, but FABP7mut abrogated these effects. Pharmacological inhibition of FABP7 function with MF6 suppressed FABP7-regulated proliferation of melanoma cells. CONCLUSION: These results suggest the importance of the interaction between FABP7 and its ligands in melanoma proliferation modulation, and the beneficial implications of therapeutic targeting of FABP7 for melanoma treatment.

TNF Receptor-Associated Factor 5 Limits Function of Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells by Controlling IFN Regulatory Factor 5 Expression.

The physiological functions of TNF receptor-associated factor 5 (TRAF5) in the skin inflammation and wound healing process are not well characterized. We found that Traf5 -/- mice exhibited an accelerated skin wound healing as compared with wild-type counterparts. The augmented wound closure in Traf5 -/- mice was associated with a massive accumulation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) into skin wounds and an enhanced expression of genes related to wound repair at skin sites. In accordance with this result, adoptive transfer of Traf5 -/- pDCs, but not wild-type pDCs, into the injured skin area in wild-type recipient mice significantly promoted skin wound healing. The expression of skin-tropic chemokine receptor CXCR3 was significantly upregulated in Traf5-/- pDCs, and treatment with a CXCR3 inhibitor cancelled the promoted wound healing in Traf5-/- mice, suggesting a pivotal role of CXCR3 in pDC-dependent wound healing. Traf5 -/- pDCs displayed significantly higher expression of IFN regulatory factor 5 (IRF5), which correlated with greater induction of proinflammatory cytokine genes and CXCR3 protein after stimulation with TLR ligands. Consistently, transduction of exogeneous TRAF5 in Traf5-/- pDCs normalized the levels of abnormally elevated proinflammatory molecules, including IRF5 and CXCR3. Furthermore, knockdown of IRF5 also rescued the abnormal phenotypes of Traf5-/- pDCs. Therefore, the higher expression and induction of IRF5 in Traf5-/- pDCs causes proinflammatory and skin-tropic characteristics of the pDCs, which may accelerate skin wound healing responses. Collectively, our results uncover a novel role of TRAF5 in skin wound healing that is mediated by IRF5-dependent function of pDCs.

Crucial Role of FABP3 in αSyn-Induced Reduction of Septal GABAergic Neurons and Cognitive Decline in Mice.

In synucleinopathies, while motor symptoms are thought to be attributed to the accumulation of misfolded α-synuclein (αSyn) in nigral dopaminergic neurons, it remains to be elucidated how cognitive decline arises. Here, we investigated the effects of distinct αSyn strains on cognition and the related neuropathology in the medial septum/diagonal band (MS/DB), a key region for cognitive processing. Bilateral injection of αSyn fibrils into the dorsal striatum potently impaired cognition in mice. The cognitive decline was accompanied by accumulation of phosphorylated αSyn at Ser129 and reduction of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic but not cholinergic neurons in the MS/DB. Since we have demonstrated that fatty acid-binding protein 3 (FABP3) is critical for αSyn neurotoxicity in nigral dopaminergic neurons, we investigated whether FABP3 also participates in αSyn pathology in the MS/DB and cognitive decline. FABP3 was highly expressed in GABAergic but rarely in cholinergic neurons in the MS/DB. Notably, Fabp3 deletion antagonized the accumulation of phosphorylated αSyn, decrease in GABAergic neurons, and cognitive impairment caused by αSyn fibrils. Overall, the present study indicates that FABP3 mediates αSyn neurotoxicity in septal GABAergic neurons and the resultant cognitive impairment, and that FABP3 in this subpopulation could be a therapeutic target for dementia in synucleinopathies.

The fatty acid binding protein FABP7 is required for optimal oligodendrocyte differentiation during myelination but not during remyelination.

The major constituents of the myelin sheath are lipids, which are made up of fatty acids (FAs). The hydrophilic environment inside the cells requires FAs to be bound to proteins, preventing their aggregation. Fatty acid binding proteins (FABPs) are one class of proteins known to bind FAs in a cell. Given the crucial role of FAs for myelin sheath formation we investigated the role of FABP7, the major isoform expressed in oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs), in developmental myelination and remyelination. Here, we show that the knockdown of Fabp7 resulted in a reduction of OPC differentiation in vitro. Consistent with this result, a delay in developmental myelination was observed in Fabp7 knockout animals. This delay was transient with full myelination being established before adulthood. FABP7 was dispensable for remyelination, as the knockout of Fapb7 did not alter remyelination efficiency in a focal demyelination model. In summary, while FABP7 is important in OPC differentiation in vitro, its function is not crucial for myelination and remyelination in vivo.

TRAF5 promotes plasmacytoid dendritic cell development from bone marrow progenitors.

The conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) and plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) originate from the same common dendritic cell precursor cells in the bone marrow. The pDCs produce large amounts of type 1 interferon in response to foreign nucleic acid and crucially contribute to host defense against viral infection. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor-associated factor 5 (TRAF5) is a pivotal component of various TNF receptor signaling pathways in the immune system. Although the functions of TRAF5 in T and B lymphocytes have been well studied, its roles in pDCs remains to be fully elucidated. In this study, we show that the expression of TRAF5 supports the generation of pDCs in the bone marrow and also critically contributes to the homeostasis of the pDC subset in the periphery in a cell-intrinsic manner. Furthermore, we provide evidence that TRAF5 promotes the commitment of DC precursor cells toward pDC versus cDC subsets, which is regulated by the balance of transcription factors TCF4 and ID2. Together our findings reveal that TRAF5 acts as a positive regulator of pDC differentiation from bone marrow progenitors.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in GnRH neurons impaired GnRH production.

The onset establishment and maintenance of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion is an important phenomenon regulating pubertal development and reproduction. GnRH neurons as well as other neurons in the hypothalamus have high-energy demands and require a constant energy supply from their mitochondria machinery to maintain active functioning. However, the involvement of mitochondrial function in GnRH neurons is still unclear. In this study, we examined the role of NADH Dehydrogenase (Ubiquinone) Fe-S protein 4 (Ndufs4), a member of the mitochondrial complex 1, on GnRH neurons using Ndufs4-KO mice and Ndufs4-KO GT1-7 cells. Ndufs4 was highly expressed in GnRH neurons in the medial preoptic area (MPOA) and NPY/AgRP and POMC neurons in the arcuate (ARC) nucleus in WT mice. Conversely, there was a significant decrease in GnRH expression in MPOA and median eminence of Ndufs4-KO mice, followed by impaired peripheral endocrine system. In Ndufs4-KO GT1-7 cells, Gnrh1 expression was significantly decreased with or without stimulation with either kisspeptin or NGF, whereas, stimulation significantly increased Gnrh1 expression in control cells. In contrast, there was no difference in cell signaling activity including ERK and CREB as well as the expression of GPR54, TrkA and p75NTR, suggesting that Ndufs4 is involved in the transcriptional regulation system for GnRH production. These findings may be useful in understanding the mitochondrial function in GnRH neuron.

The guanylate cyclase C agonist linaclotide ameliorates the gut-cardio-renal axis in an adenine-induced mouse model of chronic kidney disease.

BACKGROUND: Cardiorenal syndrome is a major cause of mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). However, the involvement of detrimental humoral mediators in the pathogenesis of cardiorenal syndrome is still controversial. Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), a hepatic metabolic product of trimethylamine generated from dietary phosphatidylcholine or carnitine derived by the gut microbiota, has been linked directly with progression of cardiovascular disease and renal dysfunction. Thus, targeting TMAO may be a novel strategy for the prevention of cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease. METHODS: Linaclotide, a guanylate cyclase C agonist, was administered to adenine-induced renal failure (RF) mice and changes in renal function and levels of gut-derived uremic toxins, as well as the gut microbiota community, were analyzed using metabolomic and metagenomic methods to reveal its cardiorenal effect. RESULTS: Linaclotide decreased the plasma levels of TMAO at a clinically used low dose of 10 µg/kg in the adenine-induced RF mouse model. At a high concentration of 100 µg/kg, linaclotide clearly improved renal function and reduced the levels of various uremic toxins. A reduction in TMAO levels following linaclotide treatment was also observed in a choline-fed pro-atherosclerotic model. Linaclotide ameliorated renal inflammation and fibrosis and cardiac fibrosis, as well as decreased the expression of collagen I, transforming growth factor-ß, galectin-3 (Gal-3) and ST2 genes. Plasma levels of Gal-3 and ST2 were also reduced. Because exposure of cardiomyocytes to TMAO increased fibronectin expression, these data suggest that linaclotide reduced the levels of TMAO and various uremic toxins and may result in not only renal, but also cardiac, fibrosis. F4/80-positive macrophages were abundant in small intestinal crypts in RF mice, and this increased expression was decreased by linaclotide. Reduced colonic claudin-1 levels were also restored by linaclotide, suggesting that linaclotide ameliorated the 'leaky gut' in RF mice. Metagenomic analysis revealed that the microbial order Clostridiales could be responsible for the change in TMAO levels. CONCLUSION: Linaclotide reduced TMAO and uremic toxin levels and could be a powerful tool for the prevention and control of the cardiorenal syndrome by modification of the gut-cardio-renal axis.

Fatty Acid Binding Protein 3 Enhances the Spreading and Toxicity of α-Synuclein in Mouse Brain.

Oligomerization and/or aggregation of α-synuclein (α-Syn) triggers α-synucleinopathies such as Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies. It is known that α-Syn can spread in the brain like prions; however, the mechanism remains unclear. We demonstrated that fatty acid binding protein 3 (FABP3) promotes propagation of α-Syn in mouse brain. Animals were injected with mouse or human α-Syn pre-formed fibrils (PFF) into the bilateral substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). Two weeks after injection of mouse α-Syn PFF, wild-type (WT) mice exhibited motor and cognitive deficits, whereas FABP3 knock-out (Fabp3-/-) mice did not. The number of phosphorylated α-Syn (Ser-129)-positive cells was significantly decreased in Fabp3-/- mouse brain compared to that in WT mice. The SNpc was unilaterally infected with AAV-GFP/FABP3 in Fabp3-/- mice to confirm the involvement of FABP3 in the development of α-Syn PFF toxicity. The number of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)- and phosphorylated α-Syn (Ser-129)-positive cells following α-Syn PFF injection significantly decreased in Fabp3-/- mice and markedly increased by AAV-GFP/FABP3 infection. Finally, we confirmed that the novel FABP3 inhibitor MF1 significantly antagonized motor and cognitive impairments by preventing α-Syn spreading following α-Syn PFF injection. Overall, FABP3 enhances α-Syn spreading in the brain following α-Syn PFF injection, and the FABP3 ligand MF1 represents an attractive therapeutic candidate for α-synucleinopathy.

FABP3 in the Anterior Cingulate Cortex Modulates the Methylation Status of the Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase67 Promoter Region.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are essential for brain development and function. Increasing evidence has shown that an imbalance of PUFAs is associated with various human psychiatric disorders, including autism and schizophrenia. Fatty acid-binding proteins (FABPs), cellular chaperones of PUFAs, are involved in PUFA intracellular trafficking, signal transduction, and gene transcription. In this study, we show that FABP3 is strongly expressed in the GABAergic inhibitory interneurons of the male mouse anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which is a component of the limbic cortex and is important for the coordination of cognitive and emotional behaviors. Interestingly, Fabp3 KO male mice show an increase in the expression of the gene encoding the GABA-synthesizing enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 (Gad67) in the ACC. In the ACC of Fabp3 KO mice, Gad67 promoter methylation and the binding of methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) and histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) to the Gad67 promoter are significantly decreased compared with those in WT mice. The abnormal cognitive and emotional behaviors of Fabp3 KO mice are restored by methionine administration. Notably, methionine administration normalizes Gad67 promoter methylation and its mRNA expression in the ACC of Fabp3 KO mice. These findings demonstrate that FABP3 is involved in the control of DNA methylation of the Gad67 promoter and activation of GABAergic neurons in the ACC, thus suggesting the importance of PUFA homeostasis in the ACC for cognitive and emotional behaviors.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The ACC is important for emotional and cognitive processing. However, the mechanisms underlying its involvement in the control of behavioral responses are largely unknown. We show the following new observations: (1) FABP3, a PUFA cellular chaperone, is exclusively expressed in GABAergic interneurons in the ACC; (2) an increase in Gad67 expression is detected in the ACC of Fabp3 KO mice; (3) the Gad67 promoter is hypomethylated and the binding of transcriptional repressor complexes is decreased in the ACC of Fabp3 KO mice; and (4) elevated Gad67 expression and abnormal behaviors seen in Fabp3 KO mice are mostly recovered by methionine treatment. These suggest that FABP3 regulates GABA synthesis through transcriptional regulation of Gad67 in the ACC.

Origin and development of septoclasts in endochondral ossification of mice.

Septoclasts are mononuclear spindle-shaped phagocytes with their long processes in uncalcified cartilage matrices and locate adjacent to the capillary endothelium at the chondro-osseous junction of the growth plate. We have previously revealed a selective expression of epidermal-type fatty acid-binding protein (E-FABP/FABP5) in septoclasts. Although, pericytes are known to distribute along capillaries and directly surround their endothelial cells in a situation similar to septoclasts, no clear evidence is available on the relationship between septoclasts and pericytes. We investigated the chronological localization and morphological change of septoclasts during development of the tibia of mice to clarify the development of septoclasts and the immune-localization of pericyte markers in septoclasts to clarify the origin of septoclasts. E-FABP-immunoreactive septoclasts emerged at the perichondrium in the middle of the cartilaginous templates of the tibia in prenatal development. Septoclasts migrated to the surface of the cartilage adjacent to invading blood vessels. Processes of septoclasts became longer and their apexes attached to Von Kossa-negative uncalcified matrices during the formation process of the primary ossification center. Not only platelet-derived growth factor receptor beta, but also neuron-glial antigen 2 was localized in septoclasts of mice from E15 (embryonic day 15) to P6w (postnatal 6 week). Our results suggest that septoclasts are originated from pericytes and involved in the blood vessel invasion during formation of the primary ossification center.