Longitudinal Associations among Identity, Internalization of Appearance Ideals, Body Image, and Eating Disorder Symptoms in Community Adolescents and Emerging Adults: Adaptive and Maladaptive Pathways.

Previous research examined the role of identity confusion and body dissatisfaction in eating disorder symptoms, but an integrative perspective including identity synthesis and positive body image is lacking. The current study used three-wave longitudinal data (T1: N = 403; 52.1% female; Mage = 14.85, SD = 0.89) spanning two years to examine the directionality of effects among identity, internalization of appearance ideals, body image, and eating disorder symptoms, with attention to adaptive mechanisms. Results revealed a maladaptive pathway in which internalizing appearance ideals posed a risk for body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptoms. Conversely, an adaptive pathway highlighted the potential protective role of positive body image regarding identity formation and internalization of appearance ideals. This study provides further insight into the critical role of appearance ideal internalization in the development of eating disorders and the potential value of positive body image. Future research and prevention/intervention efforts should focus on promoting resilience to appearance ideal internalization and enhancing positive body image in the context of identity struggles and eating disorder symptoms.

Identity Formation, Body Image, and Body-Related Symptoms: Developmental Trajectories and Associations Throughout Adolescence.

Emerging evidence highlights the intricate link between identity and one's body, however, integrative longitudinal research on this identity-body interplay is lacking. The current study used three-wave longitudinal data (Time 1: N = 403; 52.1% female; Mage = 14.85, SD = 0.89, range = 13-19 years) spanning two years (2019-2021; T1 and T2 being pre-pandemic, T3 peri-pandemic) to identify identity trajectory classes and examine their co-development with negative and positive body image and various body-related variables (i.e., sociocultural pressures, internalization of appearance ideals, self-objectification, appearance comparison, and eating disorder symptoms). First, four identity classes emerged using latent class growth analysis (achievement, moratorium, carefree diffusion, and troubled diffusion). Second, using multigroup latent growth curve modeling, adolescents in less adaptive identity trajectory classes (i.e., engaging less in pro-active processes and more in ruminative processes) displayed higher levels of negative body image and body-related symptoms. The current study testified to the clinically meaningful associations linking identity formation to adolescents' body image and other body-related symptoms.

Trauma and self-harming behaviors in high school students: The mediating role of identity formation.

INTRODUCTION: This study investigated the link between trauma and self-harming behaviors in South African high school students, and examined the mediating role of identity formation. Traumatic experiences have been commonly associated with self-harming behaviors in adolescents. However, research addressing this association in non-Western countries is limited. METHODS: A total of 552 South African high school students aged 13-21 (60.4% female; Mage = 16 years) were included in the study. Students completed self-report questionnaires on traumatic experiences, identity formation, and self-harming behaviors (disturbed eating behaviors and suicidal thoughts and behaviors). RESULTS: Structural equation modelling indicated that the association between traumatic experiences and self-harming behaviors was partially mediated by identity formation. Traumatic experiences were associated with more identity diffusion, bulimia, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Identity diffusion, in turn, was associated with more drive for thinness, bulimia, body dissatisfaction, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Identity consolidation was positively associated with drive for thinness and negatively with body dissatisfaction and suicidal thoughts and behaviors. No moderation effects by gender or age were found. CONCLUSIONS: Traumatic experiences were associated with higher levels of identity diffusion, which, in turn, were associated with more self-harming behaviors in South African high school students. These findings suggest the importance of focusing on identity diffusion in prevention and intervention programs targeting self-harming behaviors.

Identity synthesis and confusion in early to late adolescents: Age trends, gender differences, and associations with depressive symptoms.

INTRODUCTION: Research on identity development has primarily studied over-time trends in identity status change and exploration and commitment processes among late adolescents and emerging adults. Identity development in early and mid-adolescents has generally been overlooked. Hence, little is known about how a sense of identity synthesis and confusion evolves from early to late adolescence for boys and girls. METHODS: The present cross-sectional study examined gender-moderated age trends in identity synthesis and confusion from ages 12 to 25 among 5860 Belgian adolescents (56.1% girls; Mage = 16.09). In addition, using a subsample of 2782 participants, we investigated associations of identity synthesis and confusion with depressive symptoms in early, mid-, and late adolescents. RESULTS: Mean scores on identity synthesis decreased from ages 12 to 15, subsequently increased from ages 15 to 23, and decreased again later on. Mean scores on identity confusion followed a parallel but opposite cubic trend. Gender differences in these age trends were dependent upon the developmental period. For all age groups, identity synthesis scores were negatively associated with depressive symptoms, whereas positive associations emerged between identity confusion and depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: From 12 to 25 years old, individuals experience an increasing sense of identity synthesis and less identity confusion, despite fluctuations that appear to be dependent upon the developmental period. Identity synthesis and confusion seem to be strongly negatively and positively associated with depressive symptoms in early, mid-, and late adolescents.

Eating Disorder Symptomatology in Adolescent Boys and Girls: Identifying Distinct Developmental Trajectory Classes.

Eating disorder symptomatology is highly prevalent in adolescence and is regarded one of the most important precursors of clinical eating disorders. The present longitudinal study examined the development of eating disorder symptomatology in adolescents over two years. At Time 1,528 high school students filled out self-report questionnaires (50.5% female; Mage = 15 years). Multivariate latent growth curve modeling and latent class growth analyses were performed to model latent trajectories and to identify latent trajectory classes. Stable trajectories of drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction were found, whereas bulimia and BMI increased over time. Important gender differences pointed to girls experiencing more eating disorder symptoms at each time point. Additionally, more diverse trajectory classes were found in girls than in boys. Finally, classes with the most eating disorder symptoms also experienced the most problems in identity development, internalizing symptoms, and the least effortful control. The present study underscores the importance of identifying vulnerable adolescents that experience greater eating disorder symptomatology, as they also seem to experience the worst psychosocial development.

Identity Functioning in Patients with an Eating Disorder: Developmental Trajectories throughout Treatment.

Increasing research has indicated a strong association between identity functioning and eating disorder (ED) symptomatology. However, a detailed investigation of identity throughout ED treatment is lacking. The present longitudinal study examined identity in inpatients with an ED and explored its simultaneous change with ED symptomatology throughout treatment. A total of 225 female patients completed questionnaires at admission. From these 225 patients participating at admission (Wave 1), 110 also participated in at least one additional measurement wave, with 43.64% (n = 48) participating at admission and during treatment, 16.36% (n = 18) participating at admission and at discharge, and 40% (n = 44) participating at admission, during treatment and at discharge. Questionnaires on identity synthesis, identity confusion, identity processes, and ED symptomatology were completed. Latent growth curve modeling was used to address the research questions. Throughout treatment, a decrease in identity confusion and an increase in identity synthesis and adaptive identity processes were found. Accordingly, increases in identity synthesis and identification with commitment were related to general decreases in the drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction. Similarly, such decreases in ED symptoms were related to general decreases in identity confusion and ruminative exploration. The present study points to an increase in identity functioning throughout treatment, and longitudinal associations between identity functioning and ED symptomatology were found. Helping patients to decrease their ruminative exploration and to increase their identification with previously made life commitments and treating body/weight concerns could both be helpful in ED treatment.

Identity Functioning and Eating Disorder Symptomatology: The Role of Cognitive Emotion Regulation Strategies.

Introduction: Adolescence is the most critical life period for the development of eating disorder (ED) symptomatology. Although problems in identity functioning and emotion dysregulation have been proven important risk and maintaining factors of ED symptomatology, they have never been integrated in a longitudinal study. Methods: The present study is part of the Longitudinal Identity research in Adolescence (LIA)-study and aimed to uncover the temporal interplay between identity functioning, cognitive emotion regulation, and ED symptomatology in adolescence. A total of 2,162 community adolescents (Time 1: 54% female; M age = 14.58, SD = 1.88, range = 10-21 years) participated at three measurement points with 1-year intervals. They reported on identity functioning (identity synthesis and identity confusion), cognitive emotion regulation (rumination, catastrophizing, and positive reappraisal), and ED symptomatology (drive for thinness and bulimia symptoms). Results: Cross-lagged paths could be fixed for boys and girls and showed bidirectional associations between both dimensions of identity functioning and both rumination and catastrophizing over time. Similarly, these maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies were bidirectionally related to ED symptomatology over time. Finally, indirect pathways pointed to bidirectional associations between both dimensions of identity functioning and bulimia symptoms through rumination and catastrophizing. Only unidirectional associations emerged for drive for thinness and almost no cross-lagged associations were found with positive reappraisal. Conclusion: The present study demonstrates that identity confusion may contribute to the development of ED symptomatology in adolescence through cognitive emotion dysregulation. It also reveals that these ED symptoms hamper identity development through emotion dysregulation. These results stress the importance of targeting both identity functioning and cognitive emotion regulation in the prevention and intervention of ED symptoms.

Body Dissatisfaction as a Mediator between Identity Formation and Eating Disorder Symptomatology in Adolescents and Emerging Adults.

OBJECTIVE: Eating disorder symptomatology generally develops during adolescence and emerging adulthood. Previous research has focused on the role of identity formation or body image in the development of eating disorder symptomatology, but integrative work is lacking. For this reason, the present cross-sectional study examined the mediating role of body dissatisfaction in the relation between identity formation and eating disorder symptomatology. METHOD: The sample comprised 659 participants between 15 and 30 years old (68.9% females; Mage = 19.44; SDage = 3.99). All participants completed self-report measures on identity (Self-concept and Identity Measure), body dissatisfaction (the Body Image Feelings and Attitudes subscale of the Body Investment Scale and the Body Dissatisfaction subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory-3), and eating disorder symptomatology (Eating Disorder Inventory-3). Latent variable modeling from a structural equation modeling approach was used. RESULTS: First, identity formation significantly predicted eating disorder symptomatology. Additionally, indirect effects were found linking identity formation to eating disorder symptomatology through the mechanism of body dissatisfaction. No significant differences between males and females or between adolescents and emerging adults on direct or indirect effects were found. CONCLUSION: The present study indicated that body dissatisfaction mediated the relationship between identity formation and eating disorder symptomatology during mid-to-late adolescence and emerging adulthood. Provided that the present findings can be replicated in a future longitudinal study, they demonstrate that both identity formation and body dissatisfaction should be taken into account in prevention and intervention programs targeting eating disorder symptomatology.

Disturbed Eating Behaviors in Adolescents and Emerging Adults With Type 1 Diabetes: A One-Year Prospective Study.

OBJECTIVE: Disturbed eating behavior (DEB) is prevalent in youth with type 1 diabetes and is accompanied by an increased risk for complications, morbidity, and mortality. Prospective studies on DEB in the challenging transition to adulthood are scarce. This longitudinal study examined DEB over a 1-year period and investigated the directionality of effects linking DEB to diabetes-specific functioning and depressive symptoms in adolescents and emerging adults. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Three hundred youth (16-28 years old) with type 1 diabetes participated in a two-wave longitudinal study. Questionnaires measured DEB (Diabetes Eating Problem Survey-Revised [DEPS-R]), self-management, diabetes distress, and depressive symptoms. HbA1c values were obtained from physicians. Mixed ANOVA and cross-lagged analysis were used to examine prospective changes and directionality of effects, respectively. RESULTS: Mean DEB remained stable in the total sample, but significant individual differences were observed based on the cutoff score of the DEPS-R: 19% displayed persistent DEB and 8% increased and 7.3% decreased in DEB over time. The remaining individuals scored low on DEB over time. These four groups were differentiated based on insulin restriction, omission, diabetes-specific functioning, and depressive symptoms. Cross-lagged analyses indicated that DEB predicted relative increases in depressive symptoms over time, whereas reciprocal associations with glycemic control were found. CONCLUSIONS: This longitudinal study highlights the substantial impact DEB may have in the transition to adulthood, with a substantial portion of youth with type 1 diabetes being at risk for clinical DEB. Prospective pathways linking DEB to functioning were found, emphasizing the clinical relevance of assessing DEB over time.

Eating Disorder Symptomatology and Identity Formation in Adolescence: A Cross-Lagged Longitudinal Approach.

Introduction: Eating disorder symptomatology, comprising both psychological and behavioral aspects of subclinical eating concerns, constitutes a clear precursor of developing eating disorders. It is crucial to investigate its antecedents and correlates to subsequently inform eating disorder prevention programs. The present study focused on identity formation, a core developmental task in adolescence, that has increasingly been linked to eating disorder development. Our main aim was to examine the temporal sequence between eating disorder symptomatology and identity formation. Methods: Data on eating disorder symptomatology and identity formation were collected in 530 high school students (at Time 1: mean age = 15 years; SD = 1.84; range: 12-18 years; 50.6% females) using self-report questionnaires at three annual measurement points. Cross-lagged structural equation modeling was performed to examine the directionality of effects. Results: Results indicated bidirectional effects between eating disorder symptomatology and identity formation. Identity confusion seemed to increase vulnerability to body dissatisfaction and bulimia symptoms, whereas identity synthesis seemed to protect against their development. Additionally, identity synthesis seemed to protect against the development of drive for thinness as well. At the same time, body dissatisfaction and bulimia symptoms positively predicted identity confusion and negatively predicted identity synthesis over time. Conclusion: The present study adds to the growing body of literature on identity and eating disorders by focusing on their temporal interplay in a community sample of adolescents. As bidirectional effects emerged, a greater emphasis on identity formation in eating disorder prevention programs is advocated.