Rituximab or Cyclophosphamide in the Treatment of Membranous Nephropathy: The RI-CYCLO Randomized Trial.

BACKGROUND: A cyclic corticosteroid-cyclophosphamide regimen is the first-line therapy for membranous nephropathy. Compared with this regimen, rituximab therapy might have a more favorable safety profile, but a head-to-head comparison is lacking. METHODS: We randomly assigned 74 adults with membranous nephropathy and proteinuria >3.5 g/d to rituximab (1 g) on days 1 and 15, or a 6-month cyclic regimen with corticosteroids alternated with cyclophosphamide every other month. The primary outcome was complete remission of proteinuria at 12 months. Other outcomes included determination of complete or partial remission at 24 months and occurrence of adverse events. RESULTS: At 12 months, six of 37 patients (16%) randomized to rituximab and 12 of 37 patients (32%) randomized to the cyclic regimen experienced complete remission (odds ratio [OR], 0.4; 95% CI, 0.13 to 1.23); 23 of 37 (62%) receiving rituximab and 27 of 37 (73%) receiving the cyclic regimen had complete or partial remission (OR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.23 to 1.63). At 24 months, the probabilities of complete and of complete or partial remission with rituximab were 0.42 (95% CI, 0.26 to 0.62) and 0.83 (95% CI, 0.65 to 0.95), respectively, and 0.43 (95% CI, 0.28 to 0.61) and 0.82 (95% CI, 0.68 to 0.93), respectively, with the cyclic regimen. Serious adverse events occurred in 19% of patients receiving rituximab and in 14% receiving the cyclic regimen. CONCLUSIONS: This pilot trial found no signal of more benefit or less harm associated with rituximab versus a cyclic corticosteroid-cyclophosphamide regimen in the treatment of membranous nephropathy. A head-to-head, pragmatic comparison of the cyclic regimen versus rituximab may require a global noninferiority trial. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY NAME AND REGISTRATION NUMBER: Rituximab versus Steroids and Cyclophosphamide in the Treatment of Idiopathic Membranous Nephropathy (RI-CYCLO), NCT03018535.

Acute tubular necrosis following interferon-based therapy for hepatitis C: case study with literature review.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Interferon treatment of malignant or viral diseases can be accompanied by various side-effects including nephro-toxicity. METHODS: We report on a 68-year-old Caucasian male who received dual therapy with pegylated interferon 2a plus ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C. RESULTS: After three months of antiviral therapy, the patient developed acute kidney failure (serum creatinine up to 6 mg/dL) with mild proteinuria (500 mg daily) and haematuria. Immediate immunosuppressive therapy with high-dose intravenous steroids did not improve kidney function. Kidney biopsy was consistent with acute tubular necrosis without glomerular abnormalities. He started long-term peritoneal dialysis (four regular exchanges) to provide both dialysis adequacy and ascites removal. Kidney function gradually improved over the following months (serum creatinine around 2 mg/dL) and peritoneal dialysis was continued with two exchanges daily. The temporal relationship between the administration of the drug and the occurrence of nephro-toxicity, and the absence of other obvious reasons for acute tubular necrosis support a causative role for pegylated interferon; benefit on kidney disease was noted after withdrawal of antiviral agents. An extensive review of the literature on acute tubular necrosis associated with interferon-based therapy, based on in vitro data and earlier case-reports, has been made. The proposed pathogenic mechanisms are reviewed. CONCLUSIONS: Our case emphasizes the importance of monitoring renal function during treatment of chronic hepatitis C with antiviral combination therapy as treatment may precipitate kidney damage at tubular level.

Antiviral therapy for HCV-associated cryoglobulinemic glomerulonephritis: case report and review of the literature.

We describe the case of a 51-year-old woman with HCV-associated cryoglobulinemic glomerulonephritis (GN). She presented mild deterioration of kidney function, non-nephrotic proteinuria, and active urinary sediment. Kidney biopsy showed features of membranoproliferative changes with some sclerosis. Sustained viral response (SVR) was obtained by 6 months of antiviral therapy (peg-IFN-α2a plus ribavirin). SVR was linked with improvement of kidney function and remission of proteinuria. Clinical and virological remission persists over a 25-month follow-up. This case report emphasizes efficacy and safety of antiviral treatment of HCV-associated glomerulonephritis--preliminary but encouraging results exist. We identified by systematic review of the literature 9 studies (156 unique patients); the pooled estimate of frequency of sustained virological response after IFN-based therapy was 0.49 (95% confidence interval, CI: 0.21, 0.77; p < 0.0005; random effects model). Heterogeneity was found (I(2) = 98.9%, p < 0.0001). Two possible regimens should be considered for the treatment of HCV-associated cryoglobulinemic GN according to the clinical presentation. Immunosuppressive therapy is recommended for HCV-related kidney disease having aggressive course, and recent evidence supports rituximab (RTX) use with a reduced exposure to corticosteroids. We identified six studies (66 unique patients) on RTX therapy for HCV-associated kidney disease; at the end of RTX therapy, the pooled estimate of the mean decrease in proteinuria was 1.4 g/24 h (95% CI: 0.75, 2.05, p < 0.001); The p test for heterogeneity gave a value of 0.94 (I(2) = 0). Several questions related to RTX use remain. HCV-induced GN is uncommon among CKD patients of developed countries, and this clearly hampers prospective controlled clinical trials aimed to evaluate efficacy and safety of antiviral or immunosuppressive therapy in this population.

Urinary mRNA Expression of Glomerular Podocyte Markers in Glomerular Disease and Renal Transplant.

The research of novel markers in urinary samples, for the description of renal damage, is of high interest, and several works demonstrated the value of urinary mRNA quantification for the search of events related to renal disease or affecting the outcome of transplant kidneys. In the present pilot study, a comparison of the urine mRNA expression of specific podocyte markers among patients who had undergone clinical indication to renal transplanted (RTx, n = 20) and native (N, n = 18) renal biopsy was performed. The aim of this work was to identify genes involved in podocytes signaling and cytoskeletal regulation (NPHS1, NPHS2, SYNPO, WT1, TRPC6, GRM1, and NEUROD) in respect to glomerular pathology. We considered some genes relevant for podocytes signaling and for the function of the glomerular filter applying an alternative normalization approach. Our results demonstrate the WT1 urinary mRNA increases in both groups and it is helpful for podocyte normalization. Furthermore, an increase in the expression of TRPC6 after all kinds of normalizations was observed. According to our data, WT1 normalization might be considered an alternative approach to correct the expression of urinary mRNA. In addition, our study underlines the importance of slit diaphragm proteins involved in calcium disequilibrium, such as TRPC6.

Long-term outcome of renal transplantation in patients with idiopathic membranous glomerulonephritis (MN).

BACKGROUND: Little information is available about the long-term outcome of renal transplanted patients with idiopathic membranous nephropathy (MN). METHODS: The outcomes of 35 first renal transplants performed between 1975 and 2008 in patients with MN were compared with those of 70 controls transplanted in the same period and matched for sex, age and source of donors. RESULTS: The mean post-transplant follow-up was 117 ± 86 months for MN patients and 123 ± 83 months for controls. At 15 years, patient survival was 96% in patients with MN and 88% in the controls (P = ns), while graft survival rates were respectively 40% and 69% (P = 0.06). MN recurred in 12 patients (34%), namely in 4/8 (50%) patients who received the kidney from related living donors and in 8/27 (29.6%) who received the kidney from a deceased donor. Recurrence led to graft failure in six patients, all deceased donor kidney recipients, within 54 ± 33 months. The other six grafts are functioning 134 ± 73 months after transplantation. Patients with recurrence were more frequently females (42% vs 4.3%, P = 0.02). The recurrence occurred earlier (4.8 ± 3.0 vs 45.6 ± 46.9 months, P = 0.05), and there was a trend to develop a higher proteinuria (7.1 ± 5.5 vs 3.67 ± 2.6 g/24 h, P = 0.1) in grafts eventually lost because of recurrence. CONCLUSIONS: The long-term patient survival was similar in renal transplant recipients with MN and in controls. The graft survival was lower in MN patients than in controls, although the difference was at borderline significance. Recurrence occurred in one-third of the patients and caused graft loss in half of them.

Can prognostic factors assist therapeutic decisions in idiopathic membranous nephropathy?

Idiopathic membranous nephropathy (IMN) may have a variable course, with some patients entering spontaneous remission and others slowly progressing to renal failure. The disease is treatable, but the available treatments are not devoid of potential morbidity. We review the studies dedicated to finding prognostic markers. Although a number of clinical and histologic markers are associated with an increased risk of progression to renal failure, in many cases it is still impossible to recognize at presentation what will be the long-term outcome for a patient with IMN. More reliable are time-dependent predictors, such as the amount of proteinuria over time and complete or partial remission. However, this means that a physician should wait for months or even years before taking therapeutic decisions, with the risk of starting after renal or extrarenal complications have already developed. How to proceed will have to be dictated by a careful evaluation of the patient: Taking into consideration not only the risk of renal progression but also the possible extrarenal complications, we suggest starting a "specific" treatment for patients presenting with full-blown nephrotic syndrome or with increasing levels of serum creatinine, while specific treatment is not necessary for asymptomatic patients with subnephrotic proteinuria.

Delayed Diagnosis of West Nile Virus Infection in a Kidney Transplant Patient Due to Inaccuracies in Commonly Available Diagnostic Tests.

West Nile virus infection is more frequently associated with neuroinvasive disease and high morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised hosts. Here, we describe a 47-year-old Egyptian kidney transplant recipient who was admitted to our department in 2016 for persistent fever, altered mental status, and upper limb tremors. In addition, renal impairment, signs of acute thrombotic microangiopathy, pancreatitis, and slightly altered inflammatory indices were present. The patient was treated with antibacterial and antiviral therapy, and reduced immunosuppressive therapy was prescribed. After several biochemical and instrumental examinations, only slight blood positivity for West Nile virus immunoglobulin M in the absence of immunoglobulin G was found, whereas immunoglobulins M and G on cerebrospinal fluid and West Nile virus polymerase chain reaction were negative. Serology evaluated after 23 days of hospitalization confirmed immunoglobulin M positivity and detected weak immunoglobulin G positivity; however, according to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention diagnostic criteria, it was not sufficient to confirm diagnosis. During hospitalization, clinical recovery was observed, but severe renal insufficiency persisted. Renal biopsy performed after clinical recovery demonstrated chronic antibody-mediated rejection with advanced chronic lesions, without viral cytopathic signs. Four months later, we received confirmation of West Nile virus infection by plaque reduction neutralization test. The current case described severe West Nile virus infection with clinical neurologic involvement, thrombotic microangiopathy, and pancreatitis, resulting in irreversible loss of kidney function. Delayed diagnosis, based on US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention criteria, was due to absence of both characteristic radiologic features and sensitive and promptly available laboratory tests. This case stresses the need for accurate diagnostic tests and/or a partial revision of the diagnostic criteria. In fact, with an earlier diagnosis, we would have avoided diagnostic and therapeutic procedures that may have contributed to the loss of graft function in the described case.

Ribavirin as a beneficial treatment option for hepatitis C virusassociated glomerular disease.

The management of hepatitis C virus (HCV)-induced glomerular disease remains unsatisfactory despite novel advances in antiviral and immunosuppressive therapy. Recent evidence highlighted the role of ribavirin, a drug provided with immunomodulatory properties, in the treatment of glomerular diseases associated with chronic HCV. We administered low-dose ribavirin (200 mg/day or 200 mg twice a week or 200 mg thrice weekly) in a prospective fashion to a group of patients with HCV-associated glomerular disease (n = 7). Ribavirin monotherapy was given in most (n = 6) patients and was accompanied by erythropoietin therapy in all. The primary endpoint was reduction of 24-h proteinuria after treatment ended; the secondary end-points were decrease in serum creatinine and amelioration of urinary abnormalities. We collected data on on-treatment adverse events (AEs), serious AEs, and laboratory abnormalities. Many patients (n = 6) had inactive HCV infection as they had shown HCV RNA clearance from serum after antiviral therapy with direct-acting antivirals. Some patients (n = 4) had membranoproliferative glomerulo- nephritis, the diagnosis being confirmed by kidney histology in three cases; others (n = 2) received diagnosis of diabetic glomerulosclerosis, confirmed in one by kidney biopsy. We observed consistent reduction of 24-h proteinuria in two individuals after ribavirin therapy; another patient reported disappearance of microscopic hematuria. We found severe AE (hemolytic anemia) in three patients which required discontinuation of ribavirin treatment in two patients, one required hospitalization. Other AEs were cutaneous rash (n = 1), dyspepsia (n = 1), and fatigue (n = 1). Low-dose ribavirin was able to give consistent reduction of 24-h proteinuria in two patients; tolerance to ribavirin was unsatisfactory. We need further studies aimed to expand our knowledge on ribavirin therapy of HCV-associated glomerular disease. The low incidence of the disease hampers the conduction of clinical trials on this aim.

Membranous Nephropathy (MN) Recurrence After Renal Transplantation.

Primary membranous nephropathy (MN) is a frequent cause of NS in adults. In native kidneys the disease may progress to ESRD in the long term, in some 40-50% of untreated patients. The identification of the pathogenic role of anti-podocyte autoantibodies and the development of new therapeutic options has achieved an amelioration in the prognosis of this disease. MN may also develop in renal allograft as a recurrent or a de novo disease. Since the de novo MN may have some different pathogenetic and morphologic features compared to recurrent MN, in the present paper we will deal only with the recurrent disease. The true incidence of the recurrent form is difficult to assess. This is mainly due to the variable graft biopsy policies in kidney transplantation, among the different transplant centers. Anti-phospholipase A2 receptor (PLA2R) autoantibodies are detected in 70-80% of patients. The knowledge of anti-PLA2R status before transplant is useful in predicting the risk of recurrence. In addition, the serial survey of the anti-PLA2R titers is important to assess the rate of disease progression and the response to treatment. Currently, there are no established guidelines for prevention and treatment of recurrent MN. Symptomatic therapy may help to reduce the signs and symptoms related to the nephrotic syndrome. Anecdotal cases of response to cyclical therapy with steroids and cyclophosphamide have been published. Promising results have been reported with rituximab in both prophylaxis and treatment of recurrence. However, these results are based on observational data, and prospective controlled trials are still missing.

Immunosuppressive and antiviral treatment of hepatitis C virus-associated glomerular disease: A long-term follow-up.

BACKGROUND: The evidence in the medical literature on the treatment of hepatitis C virus-associated glomerular disease is extremely limited. The advent of nonconventional immunosuppressive agents and direct-acting antivirals promises high efficacy and safety. AIMS: We conducted an open-label, single-arm clinical study to examine the efficacy and safety of a combined approach for hepatitis C virus-associated glomerular disease. METHODS: In the first phase of the study, patients with hepatitis C virus-associated glomerular disease received interferon-based antiviral therapy and immunosuppressive agents; since 2013, interferon-free antiviral therapy was adopted and novel immunosuppressants (including B-cell depleting agents and mycophenolate mofetil) or immunomodulators (ribavirin) were choiced. Virological and clinical responses were evaluated over a long observation period (median follow-up of 60 weeks and 46.5 months after the end of treatment with interferon and direct-acting antiviral agents, respectively). RESULTS: We enrolled 25 consecutive patients with hepatitis C virus-associated glomerular disease, 8 being liver transplant recipients for hepatitis C. A total of 13 patients received therapy with direct-acting antivirals and experienced sustained viral response (serum hepatitis C virus RNA <12 IU/mL, 12 weeks after treatment ended, sustained viral response12). The mean (±standard deviation) proteinuria decreased from 2.61 ± 1.01 at baseline to 1.71 ± 1.43 (g/day) at sustained viral response 48, p = 0.031; microscopic hematuria and serum cryoglobulins disappeared in six (50%) and seven (64%) patients, respectively, after sustained viral response by direct-acting antivirals. Adverse events occurred in 69% (9/13) of patients and were mild, with four cases of ribavirin-related anemia requiring blood transfusions (no drop-outs). After sustained viral response by direct-acting antivirals, immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory agents were initiated in clinical relapsers ( n = 2) and nonresponders ( n = 3) with some benefit. Among patients on interferon-based regimens ( n = 12), viral response (sustained viral response 24) and dropout rates were 58% (7/12) and 33% (4/12), respectively. After sustained viral response by interferon-based therapy, clinical relapsers ( n = 3) were successfully managed with immunosuppressive agents in two patients. CONCLUSION: Treatment with direct-acting antivirals provides excellent rates of viral response and safety in patients with hepatitis C virus-related glomerular disease; viral response was frequently accompanied by clinical improvement. The absence of hepatitis C virus RNA from serum allowed immunosuppressive and immunomodulatory therapies with benefits for glomerular abnormalities and no concern on hepatitis C virus replication.

A randomized pilot trial comparing methylprednisolone plus a cytotoxic agent versus synthetic adrenocorticotropic hormone in idiopathic membranous nephropathy.

BACKGROUND: We conducted a pilot trial to compare the effectiveness and safety of 2 different treatments in patients with membranous nephropathy and nephrotic syndrome. METHODS: To validate the hypothesis that the 2 treatments were equivalent, patients with biopsy-proven membranous nephropathy and nephrotic syndrome were randomly assigned to methylprednisolone alternated with a cytotoxic drug every other month for 6 months (group A) or to intramuscular synthetic adrenocorticotropic hormone administered twice a week for 1 year (group B). RESULTS: The primary outcome measure is cumulative number of remissions as a first event. Fifteen of 16 patients in group A and 14 of 16 patients in group B entered complete or partial remission as a first event. After a median follow-up of 24 months (interquartile range, 15 to 25 months), there were 4 complete remissions and 8 partial remissions in group A versus 8 complete remissions and 6 partial remissions in group B. Median proteinuria decreased from protein of 5.1 g/d (interquartile range, 4.0 to 7.3 g/d) to 2.1 g/d (interquartile range, 0.4 to 3.8 g/d; P = 0.004) in group A and 6.0 g/d (interquartile range, 4.4 to 8.5 g/d) to 0.3 g/d (interquartile range, 0.2 to 1.9 g/d; P = 0.049) in group B. Two patients from each group interrupted treatment because of side effects or inefficacy. CONCLUSION: Most nephrotic patients with membranous nephropathy responded to either treatment. Proteinuria was significantly decreased with both methylprednisolone and cytotoxic agents or prolonged administration of synthetic adrenocorticotropic hormone, without significant differences between these 2 therapies.

Natural history of hepatitis B and C in renal allograft recipients.

BACKGROUND: In renal allograft recipients, most cases of liver dysfunction are caused by hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus (HCV). The natural history of hepatitis C and B was studied in 286 renal allograft recipients who received a kidney allograft between 1972 and 1989 when tests for anti-HCV became available. METHODS: In all patients, hepatitis B (HB) surface (s) antigen (Ag) was tested before and anti-HCV (by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay II) after transplantation. RESULTS: At enrollment in 1989 (5.5+/-4 years after transplantation), 209 patients were anti-HCV positive (C+), 42 patients were HBsAg-positive (B+), and 35 patients were both B+ and C+ (C+B+). One hundred four patients were receiving azathioprine (AZA) and 182 were on cyclosporine A (CsA). Since transplantation, the median follow-up was 18 years in AZA-treated and 13 years in CsA-treated patients. Liver biopsy showed chronic hepatitis in 73 patients, cirrhosis in 20 patients, and fibrosing cholestatic hepatitis in 2 patients. In 34 patients, liver biopsy was repeated, and progression of fibrosis was observed in 24 patients. The 12-year patient survival rate was similar in B+, C+, and B+C+ patients (67%, 78%, and 71%, respectively; P=not significant). Liver-related death was the first cause of death in B+ and B+C+ infected patients (58% and 72%, respectively), whereas cardiovascular disease was the leading cause of death in C+ patients (40%). Multivariate analysis showed that older age (>40 years) (relative risk [RR], 2.8), B+ status (RR, 2.36), and C+ status (RR, 1.65) were independently associated with a worse patient survival. CONCLUSIONS: In the long term, B+ patients had a higher risk of death related to liver disease than C+ patients, and co-infection did not worsen patient survival.

Rituximab therapy for primary glomerulonephritis: Report on two cases.

The evidence in the medical literature on the efficacy and safety of rituximab therapy for primary glomerulonephritis is limited and controversial. We describe two male Caucasian patients with rapidly progressive kidney failure due to primary proliferative glomerulonephritis. Both of them received high-dose intravenous corticosteroids and oral cyclophosphamide with limited benefit. The first patient (hepatitis C virus-negative mixed cryoglobulinemia) underwent plasma-exchange with intravenous immunoglobulins; he showed significant benefit on kidney function (he became dialysis independent with serum creatinine going back to 1.6 mg/dL) after one rituximab pulse even if urinary abnormalities were still present. No improvement in renal function or urinary changes occurred in the second patient. Both these individuals developed sepsis over the follow-up, the first patient died two months after rituximab therapy. This report is in keeping with the occurrence of severe infections after rituximab therapy in patients with renal impairment at baseline and concomitant high-dose steroids.

Is cyclosporine in renal-transplant recipients more effective when given twice a day than in a single daily dose?

BACKGROUND: It is still unknown whether it is better to administer cyclosporine (CsA) once or twice a day to renal-transplant patients. METHODS: Fifty-four patients were randomized to receive CsA once a day (OD group, 28 patients) or twice a day (BD group, 26 patients). Clinical parameters and pharmacokinetic studies were regularly monitored over the first year. RESULTS: Two patients lost their grafts because of renal vascular thrombosis. A patient in the BD group died. The other 51 patients were alive with graft functioning after a minimum follow-up of 1 year. Five patients per group had reversible acute rejection. There was a not significant trend toward a lower mean serum creatinine in OD than in BD (1.38 +/- 0.38 and 1.7 +/- 0.80 mg/dL at 1 year posttransplant, respectively). In 47 patients, 319 pharmacokinetic studies were performed. We measured the area under the concentration-time curve during the first 4 hours (AUC0-4) and CsA blood levels at 0, 2, and 4 hours after dosing. C0 was significantly lower in OD than in BD (P=0.0011), whereas C2 (P<0.0001) and C4 (P<0.0001) were significantly higher in OD than in BD. In OD, the AUC was higher than in BD (P<0.0001). OD allows us to reach high levels of C2 and AUC for several hours after dosing, whereas BD showed persistently high levels throughout the whole day. CONCLUSION: No difference in survival and rejection rates were observed between OD and BD groups.

Other immunosuppressive agents for focal segmental glomerulosclerosis.

A prolonged course with corticosteroids represents the first therapeutic approach for nephrotic patients with focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS). In patients with contraindications to steroids or in those who do not respond to steroids or cyclosporine, cytotoxic agents, mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), plasmapheresis, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) apheresis have been tried as alternative treatments. A short-term treatment with cytotoxic agents often is ineffective in steroid-resistant patients However, an aggressive and prolonged treatment with cytotoxic agents combined with corticosteroids proved to be effective in more than half of steroid-resistant children. In adults, the response to cytotoxic agents was good in steroid-responsive patients, but was poor in steroid-resistant patients. Better results were observed when cytotoxic therapy was prolonged for several months. The problem with these drugs is that long-term immunosuppression may be complicated by severe side effects including a major risk for cancer. Uncontrolled studies reported that MMF can induce some reduction of proteinuria, but complete remission of proteinuria was rare and no data on long-term follow-up evaluation with this drug are available. Good results have been reported with plasmapheresis, immunoadsorption, and lipopheresis. However, all the reports were uncontrolled, small sized, and with short-term follow-up evaluation. In conclusion, there are several therapeutic options for patients who respond to steroids and have further relapses of nephrotic syndrome, but how to treat steroid-resistant patients is still a matter of debate. Nevertheless, a 6-month trial with cytotoxic agents or MMF can be offered to steroid-resistant patients to identify the few patients who respond to these agents. The preliminary results with plasmapheresis or lipopheresis are promising but further studies are needed to assess the role of these treatments.

Corticosteroids, cyclophosphamide, and chlorambucil therapy of membranous nephropathy.

Corticosteroids and cytotoxic agents have been studied widely in membranous nephropathy (MN). However, controlled studies with corticosteroids have not shown a clear benefit of these agents on the outcome of the disease. Some controlled trials reported that cytotoxic agents can reduce proteinuria significantly, but it was difficult to assess the efficacy of these drugs in protecting renal function because of the short follow-up period of the studies. Three randomized controlled trials showed that a 6-month treatment regimen based on corticosteroids and a cytotoxic agent, giving each for 1 month at a time in an alternating schedule, could favor remission of the nephrotic syndrome and protect renal function. Taken together, the results of these trials at the end of the follow-up period, 74% of the 174 treated patients were without nephrotic syndrome, 4 patients were on chronic dialysis, and 2 patients died. Good results with cytotoxic drugs, often associated with corticosteroids, also have been reported in progressive membranous nephropathy. However, in patients with renal insufficiency side effects were frequent and severe. Moreover, in most cases renal function improved but did not return to normal.

Remission of HCV-associated glomerulonephritis with pegylated ifn and ribavirin therapy after liver transplantation: case report and literature review.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis C virus infection is associated with a variety of extrahepatic disorders such as membrano-proliferative glomerulonephritis, which is generally due to cryoglobulinemia. 
 SETTING: We describe the case of one liver transplant recipient who received antiviral therapy (subcutaneous administration of peg-IFN-alpha-2a 180 mcg weekly and oral ribavirin 200 mg thrice a day) for HCV-related membrano-proliferative glomerulonephritis. He presented normal kidney function, non-nephrotic proteinuria (2 g/24 h) and mild hematuria.
 RESULTS: Urinary abnormalities disappeared within a few weeks after the initiation of antiviral therapy; however, combination antiviral therapy was not able to obtain viral clearance. After 11 months, IFN-therapy was interrupted and the patient continued low-dose ribavirin monotherapy (200 mg once per day) for one additional year- remission of proteinuria (<0.3 g/24 h) and hematuria persisted with intact kidney function. Although other mechanisms cannot be excluded, we suggest that ribavirin therapy was critically implicated in the remission of urinary abnormalities in our patient. The existing literature on the association between HCV-associated glomerulonephritis and therapy with ribavirin is reviewed. 
 CONCLUSIONS: Antiviral therapy may be effective in patients with HCV-induced glomerulonephritis. Further evidence is needed to evaluate efficacy and safety of ribavirin monotherapy for HCV-related glomerulonephritis.

Management of idiopathic membranous nephropathy.

IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD: Idiopathic membranous nephropathy (IMN) can have a variable natural course. Treatments able to induce remission can improve the long-term prognosis. However, the optimal therapy for IMN remains controversial. AREA COVERED IN THIS REVIEW: We reviewed the historical and current literature from 1979 to 2010 regarding the natural course of IMN and the possible treatments giving special emphasis to randomized controlled trials and to more recent approaches. WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN: The reader will gain a comprehensive review of the available treatments of IMN. A personal therapeutic algorithm for nephrotic patients with IMN is also provided. TAKE HOME MESSAGE: At least five different treatments showed efficacy in many (but not all) patients with IMN.

Serological and genetic factors in early recurrence of IgA nephropathy after renal transplantation.

BACKGROUND: The relative role of IgA anomalies and genetic factors in IgA nephropathy (IgAN) recurrence after transplantation has never been investigated in a single cohort. METHODS: Sixty-one transplanted patients who had IgAN as an original disease (30 with biopsy-proved early recurrence, median 2.9 yr post-transplant), and 120 controls, were investigated for aberrantly glycosylated IgA1, IgA binding to mesangial matrix, macromolecular IgA (IgA/fibronectin and uteroglobulin/IgA/fibronectin complexes), and polymorphisms of cytokines [tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha), interleukin 10 (IL-10), IL-6, interferon gamma and transforming growth factor beta 1] and renin-angiotensin system (angiotensinogen converting enzyme, angiotensin II receptor 1, and angiotensinogen) genes. RESULTS: At multivariate logistic regression analysis, recurrence showed a border-line association with aberrantly glycosylated IgA1 [odds ratio (OR) 8.172, p = 0.077], and was significantly less frequent in carriers of -308 AG/AA TNF-alpha"high producer" genotype (OR 0.125, p = 0.036) and -1082, -819, -592 ACC/ATA IL-10 "low producer" (OR 0.038, p = 0.009) genotypes. CONCLUSION: High levels of aberrantly glycosylated IgA1 do not appear to play a strong crucial role in recurrence of IgAN. Polymorphisms of TNFalpha and IL-10 known to condition Th1 prevalence were associated with protection from early recurrence of IgAN.