Diagnosis and Management of Cardiac Sarcoidosis: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association.

Cardiac sarcoidosis is an infiltrative cardiomyopathy that results from granulomatous inflammation of the myocardium and may present with high-grade conduction disease, ventricular arrhythmias, and right or left ventricular dysfunction. Over the past several decades, the prevalence of cardiac sarcoidosis has increased. Definitive histological confirmation is often not possible, so clinicians frequently face uncertainty about the accuracy of diagnosis. Hence, the likelihood of cardiac sarcoidosis should be thought of as a continuum (definite, highly probable, probable, possible, low probability, unlikely) rather than in a binary fashion. Treatment should be initiated in individuals with clinical manifestations and active inflammation in a tiered approach, with corticosteroids as first-line treatment. The lack of randomized clinical trials in cardiac sarcoidosis has led to treatment decisions based on cohort studies and consensus opinions, with substantial variation observed across centers. This scientific statement is intended to guide clinical practice and to facilitate management conformity by providing a framework for the diagnosis and management of cardiac sarcoidosis.

2023 ACC/AHA/ACCP/HRS Guideline for the Diagnosis and Management of Atrial Fibrillation: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines.

AIM: The "2023 ACC/AHA/ACCP/HRS Guideline for the Diagnosis and Management of Atrial Fibrillation" provides recommendations to guide clinicians in the treatment of patients with atrial fibrillation. METHODS: A comprehensive literature search was conducted from May 12, 2022, to November 3, 2022, encompassing studies, reviews, and other evidence conducted on human subjects that were published in English from PubMed, EMBASE, the Cochrane Library, the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, and other selected databases relevant to this guideline. Additional relevant studies, published through November 2022, during the guideline writing process, were also considered by the writing committee and added to the evidence tables, where appropriate. STRUCTURE: Atrial fibrillation is the most sustained common arrhythmia, and its incidence and prevalence are increasing in the United States and globally. Recommendations from the "2014 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline for the Management of Patients With Atrial Fibrillation" and the "2019 AHA/ACC/HRS Focused Update of the 2014 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline for the Management of Patients With Atrial Fibrillation" have been updated with new evidence to guide clinicians. In addition, new recommendations addressing atrial fibrillation and thromboembolic risk assessment, anticoagulation, left atrial appendage occlusion, atrial fibrillation catheter or surgical ablation, and risk factor modification and atrial fibrillation prevention have been developed.

Recognition, Prevention, and Management of Arrhythmias and Autonomic Disorders in Cardio-Oncology: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association.

With the advent of novel cancer therapeutics and improved screening, more patients are surviving a cancer diagnosis or living longer with advanced disease. Many of these treatments have associated cardiovascular toxicities that can manifest in both an acute and a delayed fashion. Arrhythmias are an increasingly identified complication with unique management challenges in the cancer population. The purpose of this scientific statement is to summarize the current state of knowledge regarding arrhythmia identification and treatment in patients with cancer. Atrial tachyarrhythmias, particularly atrial fibrillation, are most common, but ventricular arrhythmias, including those related to treatment-induced QT prolongation, and bradyarrhythmias can also occur. Despite increased recognition, dedicated prospective studies evaluating true incidence are lacking. Moreover, few studies have addressed appropriate prevention and treatment strategies. As such, this scientific statement serves to mobilize the cardio-oncology, electrophysiology, and oncology communities to develop clinical and scientific collaborations that will improve the care of patients with cancer who have arrhythmias.

Guidance for Cardiac Electrophysiology During the COVID-19 Pandemic from the Heart Rhythm Society COVID-19 Task Force; Electrophysiology Section of the American College of Cardiology; and the Electrocardiography and Arrhythmias Committee of the Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Association.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a global pandemic that is wreaking havoc on the health and economy of much of human civilization. Electrophysiologists have been impacted personally and professionally by this global catastrophe. In this joint article from representatives of the Heart Rhythm Society, the American College of Cardiology, and the American Heart Association, we identify the potential risks of exposure to patients, allied healthcare staff, industry representatives, and hospital administrators. We also describe the impact of COVID-19 on cardiac arrhythmias and methods of triage based on acuity and patient comorbidities. We provide guidance for managing invasive and noninvasive electrophysiology procedures, clinic visits, and cardiac device interrogations. In addition, we discuss resource conservation and the role of telemedicine in remote patient care along with management strategies for affected patients.

Advancing Research on the Complex Interrelations Between Atrial Fibrillation and Heart Failure: A Report From a US National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Virtual Workshop.

The interrelationships between atrial fibrillation (AF) and heart failure (HF) are complex and poorly understood, yet the number of patients with AF and HF continues to increase worldwide. Thus, there is a need for initiatives that prioritize research on the intersection between AF and HF. This article summarizes the proceedings of a virtual workshop convened by the US National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute to identify important research opportunities in AF and HF. Key knowledge gaps were reviewed and research priorities were proposed for characterizing the pathophysiological overlap and deleterious interactions between AF and HF; preventing HF in people with AF; preventing AF in individuals with HF; and addressing symptom burden and health status outcomes in AF and HF. These research priorities will hopefully help inform, encourage, and stimulate innovative, cost-efficient, and transformative studies to enhance the outcomes of patients with AF and HF.

Device Therapy and Arrhythmia Management in Left Ventricular Assist Device Recipients: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association.

Left ventricular assist devices (LVADs) are an increasingly used strategy for the management of patients with advanced heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Although these devices effectively improve survival, atrial and ventricular arrhythmias are common, predispose these patients to additional risk, and complicate patient management. However, there is no consensus on best practices for the medical management of these arrhythmias or on the optimal timing for procedural interventions in patients with refractory arrhythmias. Although the vast majority of these patients have preexisting cardiovascular implantable electronic devices or cardiac resynchronization therapy, given the natural history of heart failure, it is common practice to maintain cardiovascular implantable electronic device detection and therapies after LVAD implantation. Available data, however, are conflicting on the efficacy of and optimal device programming after LVAD implantation. Therefore, the primary objective of this scientific statement is to review the available evidence and to provide guidance on the management of atrial and ventricular arrhythmias in this unique patient population, as well as procedural interventions and cardiovascular implantable electronic device and cardiac resynchronization therapy programming strategies, on the basis of a comprehensive literature review by electrophysiologists, heart failure cardiologists, cardiac surgeons, and cardiovascular nurse specialists with expertise in managing these patients. The structure and design of commercially available LVADs are briefly reviewed, as well as clinical indications for device implantation. The relevant physiological effects of long-term exposure to continuous-flow circulatory support are highlighted, as well as the mechanisms and clinical significance of arrhythmias in the setting of LVAD support.

Lead extraction for reduction of chronic pain related to cardiovascular implantable electronic device.

AIMS: Chronic pain at the cardiovascular implantable electronic device (CIED) generator or lead insertion site that is not otherwise manageable carries a IIA indication for extraction. However, limited data exist evaluating causes of pain and outcomes of extraction in eliminating pain. A multi-centre retrospective observational study was conducted to evaluate outcomes of patients undergoing device extraction for treatment of chronic device pain. METHODS AND RESULTS: Twenty-seven out of 2188 lead extraction candidates (1.3%) met the chronic pain IIA indication for extraction [50 ± 16 years; 14 (51%) women]. Onset, severity, triggers, and pain management were measured before and after extraction. Device type, procedure done (with/without reimplantation), and positive tissue cultures were noted. Pain was reported as constant (n = 14; 50%), intermittent (n = 13; 46%), and movement-triggered (n = 14; 50%). Average severity of pain was seven out of 10 (10 being the worst). Post-extraction, 18 (66%) received freedom from pain, including all patients with poorly formed pockets (n = 2) and subclinical infections (n = 2). Of the 18, 11 underwent reimplantation (61%) without recurrent pain. Nine still had pain (44 ± 17 years; seven women) after extraction. Eight of the nine underwent reimplantation, three on the contralateral chest wall and five ipsilaterally. Pain severity decreased (n = 5), increased (n = 1), or was unchanged (n = 3). CONCLUSION: Chronic pain at the CIED generator site can present as chronic or movement-triggered pain, and can be due to subclinical infection or a poorly formed device pocket. Extraction relieved constant and intermittent pain in two-thirds of patients. Extraction appears less successful in eliminating pain in women who undergo subsequent reimplantation.

Atrial Cardiopathy and the Risk of Ischemic Stroke in the CHS (Cardiovascular Health Study).

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Emerging evidence suggests that an underlying atrial cardiopathy may result in thromboembolism before atrial fibrillation (AF) develops. We examined the association between various markers of atrial cardiopathy and the risk of ischemic stroke. METHODS: The CHS (Cardiovascular Health Study) prospectively enrolled community-dwelling adults ≥65 years of age. For this study, we excluded participants diagnosed with stroke or AF before baseline. Exposures were several markers of atrial cardiopathy: baseline P-wave terminal force in ECG lead V1, left atrial dimension on echocardiogram, and N terminal pro B type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), as well as incident AF. Incident AF was ascertained from 12-lead electrocardiograms at annual study visits for the first decade after study enrollment and from inpatient and outpatient Medicare data throughout follow-up. The primary outcome was incident ischemic stroke. We used Cox proportional hazards models that included all 4 atrial cardiopathy markers along with adjustment for demographic characteristics and established vascular risk factors. RESULTS: Among 3723 participants who were free of stroke and AF at baseline and who had data on all atrial cardiopathy markers, 585 participants (15.7%) experienced an incident ischemic stroke during a median 12.9 years of follow-up. When all atrial cardiopathy markers were combined in 1 Cox model, we found significant associations with stroke for P-wave terminal force in ECG lead V1 (hazard ratio per 1000 µV*ms 1.04; 95% confidence interval, 1.001-1.08), log-transformed NT-proBNP (hazard ratio per doubling of NT-proBNP, 1.09; 95% confidence interval, 1.03-1.16), and incident AF (hazard ratio, 2.04; 95% confidence interval, 1.67-2.48) but not left atrial dimension (hazard ratio per cm, 0.96; 95% confidence interval, 0.84-1.10). CONCLUSIONS: In addition to clinically apparent AF, other evidence of abnormal atrial substrate is associated with subsequent ischemic stroke. This finding is consistent with the hypothesis that thromboembolism from the left atrium may occur in the setting of several different manifestations of atrial disease.

Initial experience with a novel electrophysiology mapping simulator.

BACKGROUND: Despite data supporting the use of simulation training in procedural specialties and accreditation requirements, few options exist for electrophysiology (EP) training. We aimed to develop a low-cost, accessible simulator for training in EP mapping, and to test the simulator in a group of novice users. METHODS: Our mapping simulator is composed of three components: an acrylic case representing torso and thigh; three-dimensional (3D) printed cardiac models; and a commercially available mapping system. Using a proprietary flexible material that mimics the consistency of human heart tissue, we created an anatomically accurate model of a normal right atrium (RA) from computed tomography data. We developed a test protocol consisting of two activities: creation of a RA shell and timed navigation to specific locations within the RA shell. Seventeen participants were randomized to either practice versus no practice on the simulator, and repeated simulator and self-assessment tests were performed after 1 week. We measured volume of the RA map and time taken and distance from the target sites for each target location. RESULTS: Both groups showed improvement in generation of geometry, volume, time to target, and self-assessed comfort level after initial exposure to the simulator. Compared with no-practice, the practice group demonstrated an improved sense of confidence in mapping. CONCLUSIONS: Focused training in EP mapping using a novel simulator created with 3D printed heart models and a standard mapping system is feasible for use in the training environment. Exposure to the simulator is associated with improved mapping skills and trainee comfort level.

Subcutaneous ICD screening with the Boston Scientific ZOOM programmer versus a 12-lead ECG machine.

BACKGROUND: The subcutaneous implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (S-ICD) requires preimplant screening to ensure appropriate sensing and reduce risk of inappropriate shocks. Screening can be performed using either an ICD programmer or a 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) machine. It is unclear whether differences in signal filtering and digital sampling change the screening success rate. METHODS: Subjects were recruited if they had a transvenous single-lead ICD without pacing requirements or were candidates for a new ICD. Screening was performed using both a Boston Scientific ZOOM programmer (Marlborough, MA, USA) and General Electric MAC 5000 ECG machine (Fairfield, CT, USA). A pass was defined as having at least one lead that fit within the screening template in both supine and sitting positions. RESULTS: A total of 69 subjects were included and 27 sets of ECG leads had differing screening results between the two machines (7%). Of these sets, 22 (81%) passed using the ECG machine but failed using the programmer and five (19%) passed using the ECG machine but failed using the programmer (P < 0.001). Four subjects (6%) passed screening using the ECG machine but failed using the programmer. No subject passed screening with the programmer but failed with the ECG machine. CONCLUSION: There can be occasional disagreement in S-ICD patient screening between an ICD programmer and ECG machine, all of whom passed with the ECG machine but failed using the programmer. On a per lead basis, the ECG machine passes more subjects. It is unknown what the inappropriate shock rate would be if an S-ICD was implanted. Clinical judgment should be used in borderline cases.

Putting the "Informed" in the informed consent process for implantable cardioverter-defibrillators: Addressing the needs of the elderly patient.

Implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) management complexities challenge the ethos of fully informed consent, particularly for the typically multimorbid elderly patient considering the device for primary prevention. The Heart Rhythm Society recommends providers include discussion on the potential need for later device deactivation or nonreplacement at the time of first implant, and to revisit this at appropriate intervals. The initial consent procedure could meet this standard by incorporating the future need to discuss further such issues when the recipient's clinical condition changes to such an extent that defibrillation would no longer be beneficial. At the time of obtaining consent, some patients may lack the will or capacity to make medically complex decisions when it would be necessary for healthcare surrogate decision-makers to contribute to this process. Ensuring an appropriate level of understanding and response may be enhanced by the use of information and decision aids. With improved communication regarding the nuances of ICD therapy, device eligible patients, and those close to them, will be empowered with a better understanding of the nature, benefits, and risks of ICD implantation, allowing them to make treatment decisions consistent with their values.

Development and Validation of a Sudden Cardiac Death Prediction Model for the General Population.

BACKGROUND: Most sudden cardiac death (SCD) events occur in the general population among persons who do not have any prior history of clinical heart disease. We sought to develop a predictive model of SCD among US adults. METHODS: We evaluated a series of demographic, clinical, laboratory, electrocardiographic, and echocardiographic measures in participants in the ARIC study (Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities) (n=13 677) and the CHS (Cardiovascular Health Study) (n=4207) who were free of baseline cardiovascular disease. Our initial objective was to derive a SCD prediction model using the ARIC cohort and validate it in CHS. Independent risk factors for SCD were first identified in the ARIC cohort to derive a 10-year risk model of SCD. We compared the prediction of SCD with non-SCD and all-cause mortality in both the derivation and validation cohorts. Furthermore, we evaluated whether the SCD prediction equation was better at predicting SCD than the 2013 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Cardiovascular Disease Pooled Cohort risk equation. RESULTS: There were a total of 345 adjudicated SCD events in our analyses, and the 12 independent risk factors in the ARIC study included age, male sex, black race, current smoking, systolic blood pressure, use of antihypertensive medication, diabetes mellitus, serum potassium, serum albumin, high-density lipoprotein, estimated glomerular filtration rate, and QTc interval. During a 10-year follow-up period, a model combining these risk factors showed good to excellent discrimination for SCD risk (c-statistic 0.820 in ARIC and 0.745 in CHS). The SCD prediction model was slightly better in predicting SCD than the 2013 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Pooled Cohort risk equations (c-statistic 0.808 in ARIC and 0.743 in CHS). Only the SCD prediction model, however, demonstrated similar and accurate prediction for SCD using both the original, uncalibrated score and the recalibrated equation. Finally, in the echocardiographic subcohort, a left ventricular ejection fraction <50% was present in only 1.1% of participants and did not enhance SCD prediction. CONCLUSIONS: Our study is the first to derive and validate a generalizable risk score that provides well-calibrated, absolute risk estimates across different risk strata in an adult population of white and black participants without a clinical diagnosis of cardiovascular disease.

Changes in Depressive Symptoms and Subsequent Risk of Stroke in the Cardiovascular Health Study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Depression is associated with stroke, but the effects of changes in depressive symptoms on stroke risk are not well understood. This study examined whether depressive symptom changes across 2 successive annual assessments were associated with incident stroke the following year. METHODS: We used visit data from 4319 participants of the Cardiovascular Health Study who were stroke free at baseline to examine whether changes in depressive symptoms classified across 2 consecutive annual assessments predicted incident first stroke during the subsequent year. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the 10-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale (high versus low at ≥10). Survival models were inverse probability weighted to adjust for demographics, health behaviors, medical conditions, past depressive symptoms, censoring, and survival. RESULTS: During follow-up, 334 strokes occurred. Relative to stable low scores of depressive symptoms, improved depression symptoms were associated with almost no excess risk of stroke (adjusted hazards ratio, 1.02; 95% confidence interval, 0.66-1.58). New-onset symptoms were nonsignificantly associated with elevated stroke risk (adjusted hazards ratio, 1.44; 95% confidence interval, 0.97-2.14), whereas persistently high depressive symptoms were associated with elevated adjusted hazard of all-cause stroke (adjusted hazards ratio, 1.65; 95% confidence interval, 1.06-2.56). No evidence for effect modification by race, age, or sex was found. CONCLUSIONS: Persistently high symptoms of depression predicted elevated hazard of stroke. Participants with improved depressive symptoms had no elevation in stroke risk. Such findings suggest that strategies to reduce depressive symptoms may ameliorate stroke risk.

Concomitant Use of the Subcutaneous Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator and a Permanent Pacemaker.

BACKGROUND: The subcutaneous implantable cardioverter defibrillator (S-ICD) is a novel implanted defibrillator for the prevention of sudden cardiac death that avoids intravascular access. Use of this device is limited by its inability to provide backup pacing. Combined use of the S-ICD with a permanent pacemaker may be the optimal choice in certain situations though experience with the use of both devices together remains limited. METHODS: We reviewed our single-center experience with the S-ICD from March 2011 to November 2015. Four patients with concomitant use of the S-ICD and a permanent pacemaker were identified. Clinical indication for device therapy, operative details, and subsequent follow-up was reviewed. During implantation, S-ICD sensing of paced morphologies was evaluated at maximal voltage output. After S-ICD implant, if feasible, the upper rate was adjusted to ≤50% of the S-ICD tachycardia zone to minimize risk of inappropriate shocks. RESULTS: After a mean follow-up of over 1 year, no adverse events occurred, including no inappropriate shock, lead malfunction, or device infection. One patient had a total of eight appropriate shocks, while another individual had no inappropriate shocks despite having a unipolar pacing lead. CONCLUSIONS: In unique situations, combined use of the S-ICD and a permanent pacemaker may be preferable to alternative options. In our experience, this approach was successful in varying conditions including complex congenital heart disease, recurrent device infection, and limited vascular access.

Fibroblast growth factor-23 and incident atrial fibrillation: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) and the Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS).

BACKGROUND: Fibroblast growth factor-23 (FGF-23) is a hormone that promotes urinary phosphate excretion and regulates vitamin D metabolism. Circulating FGF-23 concentrations increase markedly in chronic kidney disease and are associated with increased risk of clinical cardiovascular events. FGF-23 may promote atrial fibrillation (AF) by inducing left ventricular hypertrophy and diastolic and left atrial dysfunction. METHODS AND RESULTS: We tested the associations of circulating FGF-23 concentration with incident AF among 6398 participants in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) and 1350 participants in the Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS), all free of clinical cardiovascular disease at baseline. Over a median of 7.7 and 8.0 years of follow-up, we observed 291 and 229 incident AF events in MESA and CHS, respectively. In multivariable Cox proportional hazards models, each 2-fold-higher FGF-23 concentration was associated with a 41% higher risk of incident AF in MESA (hazard ratio, 1.41; 95% confidence interval, 1.13-1.76; P=0.003) and a 30% higher risk of incident AF in CHS (hazard ratio, 1.30; 95% confidence interval, 1.05-1.61; P=0.016) after adjustment for potential confounding characteristics, including kidney disease. Serum phosphate concentration was significantly associated with incident AF in MESA (hazard ratio, 1.15 per 0.5 mg/dL; 95% confidence interval, 1.02-1.31; P=0.023) but not CHS. In MESA, an association of low estimated glomerular filtration rate with incident AF was partially attenuated by adjustment for FGF-23. CONCLUSION: Higher circulating FGF-23 concentration is associated with incident AF and may, in part, explain the link between chronic kidney disease and AF.

Association between left atrial abnormality on ECG and vascular brain injury on MRI in the Cardiovascular Health Study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Emerging evidence suggests that atrial disease is associated with vascular brain injury in the absence of atrial fibrillation. METHODS: The Cardiovascular Health Study prospectively enrolled community-dwelling adults aged ≥65 years. Among participants who underwent MRI, we examined associations of ECG left atrial abnormality with brain infarcts and leukoaraiosis. P-wave terminal force in lead V1 was the primary measure of left atrial abnormality; P-wave area and duration were secondary predictors. We excluded participants with atrial fibrillation before or on their index ECG. Primary outcomes were incident infarcts and worsening leukoaraiosis from initial to follow-up scan ≈5 years later. Secondary outcomes were prevalent infarcts and degree of leukoaraiosis on initial MRI. Relative risk (RR) and linear regression models were adjusted for vascular risk factors. RESULTS: Among 3129 participants with ≥1 scan, each SD increase in P-wave terminal force in lead V1 was associated with a 0.05-point (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.0003-0.10) higher baseline white matter grade on a 10-point scale. P-wave terminal force in lead V1 was associated with prevalent infarcts of any type (RR per SD, 1.09; 95% CI, 1.04-1.16) and more so with prevalent nonlacunar infarcts (RR per SD, 1.22; 95% CI, 1.08-1.38). Among 1839 participants with 2 scans, P-wave terminal force in lead V1 was associated with worsening leukoaraiosis (RR per SD, 1.09; 95% CI, 1.01-1.18), but not with incident infarcts (RR per SD, 1.06; 95% CI, 0.93-1.20). Sensitivity analyses adjusting for incident atrial fibrillation found similar results. P-wave area and duration were not associated with outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: ECG left atrial abnormality is associated with vascular brain injury in the absence of documented atrial fibrillation.

Fine-mapping and initial characterization of QT interval loci in African Americans.

The QT interval (QT) is heritable and its prolongation is a risk factor for ventricular tachyarrhythmias and sudden death. Most genetic studies of QT have examined European ancestral populations; however, the increased genetic diversity in African Americans provides opportunities to narrow association signals and identify population-specific variants. We therefore evaluated 6,670 SNPs spanning eleven previously identified QT loci in 8,644 African American participants from two Population Architecture using Genomics and Epidemiology (PAGE) studies: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study and Women's Health Initiative Clinical Trial. Of the fifteen known independent QT variants at the eleven previously identified loci, six were significantly associated with QT in African American populations (P≤1.20×10(-4)): ATP1B1, PLN1, KCNQ1, NDRG4, and two NOS1AP independent signals. We also identified three population-specific signals significantly associated with QT in African Americans (P≤1.37×10(-5)): one at NOS1AP and two at ATP1B1. Linkage disequilibrium (LD) patterns in African Americans assisted in narrowing the region likely to contain the functional variants for several loci. For example, African American LD patterns showed that 0 SNPs were in LD with NOS1AP signal rs12143842, compared with European LD patterns that indicated 87 SNPs, which spanned 114.2 Kb, were in LD with rs12143842. Finally, bioinformatic-based characterization of the nine African American signals pointed to functional candidates located exclusively within non-coding regions, including predicted binding sites for transcription factors such as TBX5, which has been implicated in cardiac structure and conductance. In this detailed evaluation of QT loci, we identified several African Americans SNPs that better define the association with QT and successfully narrowed intervals surrounding established loci. These results demonstrate that the same loci influence variation in QT across multiple populations, that novel signals exist in African Americans, and that the SNPs identified as strong candidates for functional evaluation implicate gene regulatory dysfunction in QT prolongation.

Impact of sex and ethnicity on arrhythmic risk.

Substantial differences in the risk of common arrhythmia syndromes exist between men and women, as well as in varying ethnic/racial groups. For example, despite an overall lower risk of sudden death and atrial fibrillation in women compared with men, women have longer QT intervals and a higher risk of torsades de pointes due to antiarrhythmic drugs and worse outcomes associated with atrial fibrillation. An ethnicity-related paradox in atrial fibrillation epidemiology is apparent; despite a higher prevalence of medical comorbidities such as hypertension, diabetes, and prolonged PR interval, blacks, Hispanics, and Asians have a lower risk of atrial fibrillation than whites. In this promising era of genomic medicine, an improved understanding of epidemiology and phenotype holds the potential for revealing novel therapeutic targets and preventing disease.