Liraglutide protects ß-cells in novel human islet spheroid models of type 1 diabetes.

To enable accurate, high-throughput and longer-term studies of the immunopathogenesis of type 1 diabetes (T1D), we established three in-vitro islet-immune injury models by culturing spheroids derived from primary human islets with proinflammatory cytokines, activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells or HLA-A2-restricted preproinsulin-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes. In all models, ß-cell function declined as manifested by increased basal and decreased glucose-stimulated insulin release (GSIS), and decreased intracellular insulin content. Additional hallmarks of T1D progression such as loss of the first-phase insulin response (FFIR), increased proinsulin-to-insulin ratios, HLA-class I expression, and inflammatory cytokine release were also observed. Using these models, we show that liraglutide, a glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist, prevented loss of GSIS under T1D-relevant stress, by preserving the FFIR and decreasing immune cell infiltration and cytokine secretion. Our results corroborate that liraglutide mediates an anti-inflammatory effect that aids in protecting ß-cells from the immune-mediated attack that leads to T1D.

The transcription factor T-bet controls regulatory T cell homeostasis and function during type 1 inflammation.

Several subsets of Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (T(reg) cells) work in concert to maintain immune homeostasis. However, the molecular bases underlying the phenotypic and functional diversity of T(reg) cells remain obscure. We show that in response to interferon-gamma, Foxp3(+) T(reg) cells upregulated the T helper type 1 (T(H)1)-specifying transcription factor T-bet. T-bet promoted expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR3 on T(reg) cells, and T-bet(+) T(reg) cells accumulated at sites of T(H)1 cell-mediated inflammation. Furthermore, T-bet expression was required for the homeostasis and function of T(reg) cells during type 1 inflammation. Thus, in a subset of CD4(+) T cells, the activities of the transcription factors Foxp3 and T-bet are overlaid, which results in T(reg) cells with unique homeostatic and migratory properties optimized for the suppression of T(H)1 responses in vivo.

T-bet(+) Treg cells undergo abortive Th1 cell differentiation due to impaired expression of IL-12 receptor ß2.

Foxp3(+) regulatory T (Treg) cells limit inflammatory responses and maintain immune homeostasis. Although comprised of several phenotypically and functionally distinct subsets, the differentiation of specialized Treg cell populations within the periphery is poorly characterized. We demonstrate that the development of T-bet(+) Treg cells that potently inhibit T helper 1 (Th1) cell responses was dependent on the transcription factor STAT1 and occurred directly in response to interferon-γ produced by effector T cells. Additionally, delayed induction of the IL-12Rß2 receptor component after STAT1 activation helped ensure that Treg cells do not readily complete STAT4-dependent Th1 cell development and lose their ability to suppress effector T cell proliferation. Thus, we define a pathway of abortive Th1 cell development that results in the specialization of peripheral Treg cells and demonstrate that impaired expression of a single cytokine receptor helps maintain Treg cell-suppressive function in the context of inflammatory Th1 cell responses.

Anti-IL-21 monoclonal antibody combined with liraglutide effectively reverses established hyperglycemia in mouse models of type 1 diabetes.

Immunotherapy for type 1 diabetes (T1D) has previously focused on suppressing the autoimmune response against pancreatic beta cells to preserve endogenous insulin production and regulate glucose levels. With increased attention toward combination therapy strategies, studies indicate the multifunctional cytokine interleukin-21 (IL-21) may be a suitable target as an immuno-modulatory arm, while glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonists may be appropriate as a beta cell protective arm in combination therapy for T1D. We report here that treatment with anti-IL-21 monoclonal antibody delays diabetes onset in the spontaneous non-obese diabetic (NOD) and NOD.scid adoptive transfer models, while its effect in reversing recent-onset hyperglycemia is limited. However, the combination of anti-IL-21 plus the GLP-1R agonist liraglutide is effective in reversing established disease compared to either monotherapy in both the NOD and rat insulin promotor-lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus glycoprotein (RIP-LCMV-GP) models of autoimmune diabetes. Enhanced efficacy is particularly evident in severely hyperglycemic mice, with return to normoglycemia remaining stable for the majority of mice even after therapy is withdrawn. Importantly, increased beta cell proliferation does not appear to be the predominant mechanism. In conclusion, combination therapy with anti-IL-21 and liraglutide is able to consistently reverse disease in mouse models of T1D. The observed effects rival the most effective experimental disease-modifying treatments tested in preclinical studies.

Type-1 immunity drives early lethality in scurfy mice.

Foxp3(+) regulatory T (Treg) cells modulate the functions of multiple immune cell types, and loss of Treg cells causes lethal, CD4(+) T-cell-dependent multiorgan autoimmune disease in both mice and humans. However, how different effector T-cell subets contribute to the severe autoimmunity observed in the absence of Treg cells remains controversial. We found that although expanded populations of Th1, Th2, and Th17 cells can be detected in scurfy (sf) mice, Th1 cells predominate. Moreover, using a genetic approach, we found that sf mice with deficiencies in type-1 immunity (sf × Ifngr1(-/-), sf × Tbx21(-/-), and sf × Ifngr1(-/-)/Tbx21(-/-)) have an extended lifespan that is associated with altered cytokine production and attenuated cutaneous and hepatic inflammation. By contrast, sf mice deficient in type-2 immune responses (sf × Stat6(-/-)) display a significantly reduced lifespan with increased hepatic inflammation, but decreased dermatitis. These data indicate that Th1 cells and their associated cytokines drive early immunopathology in Foxp3-deficient sf mice, highlighting the essential role of Treg cells in restraining Th1-cell-mediated autoimmunity.

Cellular requirements for diabetes induction in DO11.10xRIPmOVA mice.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) results from the immune-mediated destruction of the insulin-producing ß-islet cells in the pancreas. The genetic and environmental mechanisms promoting the development of this disease remain poorly understood. We have explored the cellular requirements for T1D development in DO11.10xRIPmOVA (DORmO) mice, which carry a TCR transgene specific for an MHC class II-restricted epitope from OVA and express membrane-bound OVA in the pancreas under the control of the rat insulin promoter. We found that DORmO.RAG2(-/-) mice do not develop insulitis and are completely protected from diabetes, demonstrating that endogenous lymphocyte receptor rearrangement is required for disease development. Diabetes in DORmO mice is preceded by the development of OVA-specific autoantibodies and is delayed in B cell-deficient DORmO.JhD(-/-) mice, demonstrating that B cells contribute to disease progression. In addition, transfer of CD8(+) T cells from diabetic animals into DORmO.RAG2(-/-) mice promoted insulitis by OVA-specific CD4(+) T cells. Finally, although diabetes develops in DORmO mice in the presence of a significant population of Foxp3(+) OVA-specific regulatory T cells, boosting regulatory T cell numbers by injecting IL-2 immune complexes dampens autoantibody production and prevents development of insulitis and overt diabetes. These results help define the events leading to diabetes in DORmO mice and provide new insights into the cellular interactions required for disease development in an Ag-specific model of T1D.

An in vitro model of posterior capsular opacity: SPARC and TGF-beta2 minimize epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in lens epithelium.

PURPOSE: This report presents a novel model for studies of extracellular matrix (ECM) in posterior capsular opacification (PCO) in vitro. Lens epithelial cells (LEC) were cultured with an intraocular lens (IOL) on a surface of type IV collagen in an evaluation of the importance of the ECM-cell interaction in formation of PCO. Abnormal migration, proliferation, and expression of proteins associated with the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) that characterizes PCO were observed in the presence and absence of the matricellular protein SPARC (secreted protein, acidic and rich in cysteine), which regulates matrix-cell interactions. METHODS: The model for PCO in vitro consisted of an IOL placed on a membrane coated with collagen IV, a major constituent of the lens capsule. LECs from the lenses of wild-type (WT) and SPARC-null (SP-null) mice were cultured in the presence or absence of 10 ng/mL TGF-beta2 and 20 mug/mL recombinant human SPARC (rhSP) for up to 6 days. The migration of LECs was quantified. Labeling with BrdU and the measurement of DNA synthesis were assays for cell proliferation. Expression of the EMT markers, collagen type I, fibronectin, and alpha-smooth muscle actin were assessed using immunocytochemistry or Western immunoblots. RESULTS: LEC migration, proliferation, and the synthesis of EMT markers were enhanced in SP-null compared with WT LECs. TGF-beta2 inhibited the migration and proliferation of both WT and SP-null LECs in the presence of rhSP. TGF-beta2 increased the production of collagen type I, fibronectin, and alpha-SMA. The responses of SP-null LECs were rescued by the addition of recombinant human (rh)SP. CONCLUSIONS: A simple IOL culture system was useful for the evaluation of the effects of SPARC and TGF-beta2 on PCO in vitro. The action of TGF-beta2 on LEC migration and proliferation is influenced by SPARC, a regulator of matrix-cell interactions. The results indicate a functional intersection between pathways activated by TGF-beta2 and SPARC in the formation of PCO.