Measurement of airborne nicotine, as a marker of secondhand smoke exposure, in homes with residents who smoke in 9 European countries.

OBJECTIVE: Smoke-free policies are effective in preventing secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure, but their adoption at home remains largely voluntary. This study aimed to quantify SHS exposure in homes with residents who smoke in Europe according to households' characteristics, tobacco consumption habits, and national contextual factors. METHODS: Cross-sectional study (March 2017-September 2018) based on measurements of air nicotine inside 162 homes with residents who smoke from nine European countries. We installed passive samplers for seven consecutive days to monitor nicotine concentrations. Through self-administered questionnaires, we collected sociodemographic information and the number of individuals who smoke, smoking rules, frequency, location, and quantity of tobacco use in households. Country-level factors included the overall score in the Tobacco Control Scale 2016, the smoking prevalence, and self-reported SHS exposure prevalence. Nicotine concentrations were analyzed as continuous and dichotomous variables, categorized based on the limit of quantification of 0.02 µg/m3. RESULTS: Overall, median nicotine concentration was 0.85 µg/m3 (interquartile range (IQR):0.15-4.42), and there was nicotine presence in 93% of homes. Participants reported that smoking was not permitted in approximately 20% of households, 40% had two or more residents who smoked, and in 79% residents had smoked inside during the week of sampling. We found higher nicotine concentrations in homes: with smell of tobacco smoke inside (1.45 µg/m3 IQR: 0.32-6.34), where smoking was allowed (1.60 µg/m3 IQR: 0.68-7.63), with two or more residents who smoked (2.42 µg/m3 IQR: 0.58-11.0), with more than 40 cigarettes smoked (2.92 µg/m3 IQR: 0.97-10.61), and where two or more residents smoked inside (4.02 µg/m3 IQR: 1.58-11.74). Household nicotine concentrations were significantly higher in countries with higher national smoking prevalence and self-reported SHS exposure prevalence (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: SHS concentrations in homes with individuals who smoke were approximately twenty times higher in homes that allowed smoking compared to those reporting smoke-free household rules. Evidence-based interventions promoting smoke-free homes should be implemented in combination with strengthening other MPOWER measures.

Factors associated with changes in inpatients' smoking pattern during hospitalization and one month after discharge: A cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: Smokers are frequent users of healthcare services. Admissions to hospital can serve as a "teachable moment" for quitting smoking. Clinical guidelines recommend initiating smoking cessation services during hospitalization; however, in Southern European countries less than 5% of inpatients receive a brief intervention for smoking cessation. OBJECTIVES: The aims of this study were (i) to examine rates of smoking abstinence during and after hospitalization; (ii) to measure changes in smoking patterns among persons who continued smoking after discharge; and (iii) to identify predictors of abstinence during hospitalization and after discharge. METHODS: A cohort study of a representative sample of current adult smokers hospitalized in two Spanish and two Portuguese hospitals. We surveyed smokers during hospitalization and recontacted them one month after discharge. We used a 25-item ad hoc questionnaire regarding their smoking pattern, the smoking cessation intervention they have received during hospitalization, and hospital and sociodemographic characteristics. We performed a descriptive analysis using the chi-square test and a multivariate logistic regression to characterize the participant, hospital, and smoking cessation intervention (5As model) characteristics associated with smoking abstinence. RESULTS: Smoking patients from both countries presented high abstinence rates during hospitalization (Spain: 76.4%; Portugal: 70.2%); however, after discharge, their abstinence rates decreased to 55.3% and 46.8%, respectively. In Spain, smokers who tried to quit before hospital admission showed higher abstinence rates, and those who continued smoking reduced a mean of five cigarettes the number of cigarettes per day (p ≤ 0.001). In Portugal, abstinence rates were higher among women (p = 0.030), those not living with a smoker (p = 0.008), those admitted to medical-surgical wards (p = 0.035), who consumed their first cigarette within 60 min after waking (p = 0.006), and those who were trying to quit before hospitalization (p = 0.043). CONCLUSIONS: Half of the smokers admitted into the Spanish hospitals are abstinent one month after discharge or have reduced their cigarettes per day. Nevertheless, success rates could be increased by implementing evidence-based tobacco cessation programs at the organizational-level, including post-discharge active quitting smoking support. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Three-quarters of the inpatients who smoke remain abstinent during hospitalization and over half achieve to maintain their abstinence or at least reduce their consumption one month after discharge, proving that admission to hospitals is an excellent teachable moment to quit smoking.

Secondhand smoke exposure assessment in outdoor hospitality venues across 11 European countries.

OBJECTIVE: Due to partial or poorly enforced restrictions secondhand tobacco smoke (SHS) is still present in outdoor hospitality venues in many European countries. This study aimed to assess SHS concentrations in outdoor hospitality venues across Europe and identify contextual exposure determinants. METHODS: Cross-sectional study. We measured airborne nicotine and evidence of tobacco use in terraces of bars, cafeterias, and pubs from 11 European countries in 2017-2018. Sites were selected considering area-level socioeconomic indicators and half were visited during nighttime. We noted the smell of smoke, presence of smokers, cigarette butts, ashtrays, and number of physical covers. Contextual determinants included national smoke-free policies for the hospitality sector, the Tobacco Control Scale score (2016), and the national smoking prevalence (2017-2018). We computed medians and interquartile ranges (IQR) of nicotine concentrations and used multivariate analyses to characterize the exposure determinants. RESULTS: Nicotine was present in 93.6% of the 220 sites explored. Overall concentrations were 0.85 (IQR:0.30-3.74) µg/m3 and increased during nighttime (1.45 IQR:0.65-4.79 µg/m3), in enclosed venues (2.97 IQR:0.80-5.80 µg/m3), in venues with more than two smokers (2.79 IQR:1.03-6.30 µg/m3), in venues in countries with total indoor smoking bans (1.20 IQR:0.47-4.85 µg/m3), and in venues in countries with higher smoking prevalence (1.32 IQR:0.49-5.34 µg/m3). In multivariate analyses, nicotine concentrations were also positively associated with the observed number of cigarette butts. In venues with more than two smokers, SHS levels did not significantly vary with the venues' degree of enclosure. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that current restrictions in outdoor hospitality venues across Europe have a limited protective effect and justify the adoption of total smoking bans in outdoor areas of hospitality venues.

Who Smokes in Europe? Data From 12 European Countries in the TackSHS Survey (2017-2018).

BACKGROUND: Population data on tobacco use and its determinants require continuous monitoring and careful inter-country comparison. We aimed to provide the most up-to-date estimates on tobacco smoking from a large cross-sectional survey, conducted in selected European countries. METHODS: Within the TackSHS Project, a face-to-face survey on smoking was conducted in 2017-2018 in 12 countries: Bulgaria, England, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Poland, Portugal, Romania, and Spain, representing around 80% of the 432 million European Union (EU) adult population. In each country, a representative sample of around 1,000 subjects aged 15 years and older was interviewed, for a total of 11,902 participants. RESULTS: Overall, 25.9% of participants were current smokers (31.0% of men and 21.2% of women, P < 0.001), while 16.5% were former smokers. Smoking prevalence ranged from 18.9% in Italy to 37.0% in Bulgaria. It decreased with increasing age (compared to <45, multivariable odds ratio [OR] for ≥65 year, 0.31; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.27-0.36), level of education (OR for low vs high, 1.32; 95% CI, 1.17-1.48) and self-rated household economic level (OR for low vs high, 2.05; 95% CI, 1.74-2.42). The same patterns were found in both sexes. CONCLUSIONS: These smoking prevalence estimates represent the most up-to-date evidence in Europe. From them, it can be derived that there are more than 112 million current smokers in the EU-28. Lower socio-economic status is a major determinant of smoking habit in both sexes.

llicit Drug Use among College Students: The Importance of Knowledge about Drugs, Live at Home and Peer Influence.

The problem of consumption of illicit psychoactive substances by students in higher education is not new, since it is in this age group that the highest prevalence of consumption of these substances continues to occur. This study aimed to describe the prevalence of illicit drug use among university students and to analyze the predictive factors and patterns of illicit drug use among university students in Portugal. A cross-sectional design and a stratified random sampling method were used (n = 840). A validated self-administered questionnaire was used, consisting of socio-demographic characteristics, information about the patterns of illicit drugs consumption, and knowledge and attitudes toward illicit drugs use. The prevalence of illicit drugs consumption was 22.2%, while overall students had a low level of knowledge and moderate scores when it came to the attitudes toward drug use. Being male, having changed residence after entering higher education, having friends who use illicit drugs and possessing knowledge on drugs increased the likelihood of consuming illicit drugs. The results of the study could help develop strategies to reduce use of illicit drugs in academic settings, giving special attention to the influence of peers and students who changed their residence after entering higher education.

Knowledge, attitudes and practice of self-medication among university students in Portugal: A cross-sectional study.

Aims: To describe the knowledge, attitudes and practices of self-medication in college students and to analyse the predicting factors for the engagement in that behaviour. Design: This is a cross-sectional study involving students (n = 840) from a Portuguese university, selected through stratified and proportional sampling. Data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire containing, in addition to sociodemographic issues, a scale measuring knowledge about self-medication (α = .488), a scale measuring attitudes towards self-medication (α = .708) and questions about the patterns of self-medication practices (α = .445). Differences between outcomes and sociodemographics were analysed through independent t-tests and ANOVA. A generalised linear model was calculated to determine the predictive variables of self-medication. Results: Over half of the respondents ( 54.3%, n = 434) had used some form of self-medication during the preceding year. Students revealed poor knowledge about the referred practice, correctly answering 1.60 (SD = 0.936) questions in a total of 3, and favourable attitudes towards self-medication (M = 2.17, SD = 0.950, range 1-5). Attending engineering sciences (ß = .718, 95% CI: 1.373-3.069, p < .001), being female (ß = .866, 95% CI: 1.700-3.327, p < .001) and having negative attitudes towards self-medication (ß = .367, 95% CI: 1.227-1.698, p < .001) predict the adoption of those practices. Conclusions: Self-medication is a common practice among university students, the level of self-medication knowledge is low and the low score of the level of attitudes revealed that students tended to have a correct positioning towards self-medication. Therefore, the recommendation to develop campaigns or educational programmes becomes obvious, in order to inform about the adverse effects of the use of non-prescribed medicine.

Secondhand smoke exposure in outdoor children's playgrounds in 11 European countries.

INTRODUCTION: Tobacco presence in outdoor children's playgrounds is concerning not only because it leads to secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure, but also cigarette butt pollution and tobacco normalization. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to assess SHS exposure in children's playgrounds, according to area-level socioeconomic status (SES), smoke-free regulations, national smoking prevalence, and SHS exposure prevalence in playgrounds (2017-2018). METHODS: We monitored vapor-phase nicotine concentration and tobacco-related variables in 20 different playgrounds in 11 European countries (n = 220 measurements) from March 2017 to April 2018. Playgrounds were selected according to area-level SES. Data on the number of people smoking, and cigarette butts inside the playground and on playground surroundings (<1 m away) were recorded. Playground smoking bans, the Tobacco Control Scale (TCS) score, national smoking prevalence and SHS exposure prevalence in playgrounds were used to group countries. To determine nicotine presence, we dichotomized concentrations using the limit of quantification as a cut-off point (0.06 µg/m3). Nicotine median concentrations were compared using non-parametric tests, and nicotine presence and tobacco-related observational variables using the Chi-squared test. RESULTS: Airborne nicotine presence was found in 40.6% of the playgrounds. Median nicotine concentration was <0.06 µg/m3 (Interquartile range: <0.06-0.125) and higher median concentrations were found in more deprived neighborhoods, non-regulated playgrounds, in countries with lower overall TCS scores, higher national smoking prevalence and higher SHS exposure prevalence in playgrounds. Overall, people were smoking in 19.6% of the playgrounds. More than half of playgrounds had cigarette butts visible inside (56.6%) and in the immediate vicinity (74.4%). Presence of butts inside playgrounds was higher in sites from a low area-level SES, in countries with low TCS scores, and greater smoking prevalence and SHS exposure prevalence (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: There is evidence of SHS exposure in children's playgrounds across Europe. These findings confirm the need for smoking bans in playgrounds and better enforcement in those countries with smoking bans in playgrounds.

Secondhand smoke exposure and other signs of tobacco consumption at outdoor entrances of primary schools in 11 European countries.

INTRODUCTION: Although smoking restrictions at child-related settings are progressively being adopted, school outdoor entrances are neglected in most smoke-free policies across Europe. OBJECTIVES: To describe secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure and tobacco-related signs in outdoor entrances of primary schools in Europe according to area-level socioeconomic status (SES), smoke-free policy, national smoking prevalence, and geographical region. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study we monitored vapor-phase nicotine concentrations at 220 school outdoor entrances in 11 European countries (March 2017-October 2018). To account for nicotine presence, we used the laboratory's limit of quantification of 0.06 µg/m3 as point threshold. We also recorded the presence of smell of smoke, people smoking, cigarette butts, and ashtrays. Half of the schools were in deprived areas. We grouped countries according to their Tobacco Control Scale (TCS) score, smoking prevalence (2017-2018), and United Nations M49 geographical region. RESULTS: There were detectable levels of nicotine in 45.9% of the outdoor entrances, in 29.1% smell of smoke, in 43.2% people smoking, in 75.0% discarded butts, and in 14.6% ashtrays. Median nicotine concentration was below the laboratory's limit of quantification <0.06 µg/m3 (Interquartile range:<0.06-0.119). We found higher SHS levels in countries with lower TCS scores, higher national smoking prevalence, and in the Southern and Eastern European regions. People smoking were more common in schools from lower area-level SES and in countries with lower TCS scores (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Smoking at school outdoor entrances is a source of SHS exposure in Europe. These findings support the extension of smoking bans with a clear perimeter to the outdoor entrances of schools.

Prevalence of Portuguese Children Exposed to Secondhand Smoke at Home and in the Car.

INTRODUCTION: Children's exposure to secondhand smoke is a cause of serious health problems and infant morbidity. This is the first nationally representative study conducted in Portugal to describe the prevalence of children exposed to secondhand smoke at home and in the car. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This is a descriptive cross-sectional study with a representative sample of 2396 Portuguese children aged 0 to 9 years old, stratified by age and administrative region NUTS II. Questionnaires were administered between January and September 2016. RESULTS: Results showed that 6.1% of mothers and 11.2% of fathers reported smoking at home. It was found that 4.5% of mothers and 8.3% of fathers reported smoking in the car. Results also showed that 5.4% of children were double exposed to secondhand smoke at home and in the car. Children whose parents were smokers and had a lower level of education were more exposed to secondhand smoke at home. DISCUSSION: Children's exposure to secondhand smoke has been decreasing in Portugal. Parental smoking and a low educational level were risk factors for children's exposure to secondhand smoke at home. CONCLUSION: The main source of children's exposure to secondhand smoke is parental smoking. As such, it is crucial to implement effective measures to control parental smoking. It is necessary to promote smoking cessation among parents and to ban smoking inside the car.

Introdução: A exposição das crianças ao fumo ambiental do tabaco é uma importante causa de graves problemas de saúde e morbilidade infantil. Este é o primeiro estudo com representatividade nacional realizado em Portugal a descrever a prevalência de crianças expostas ao fumo ambiental do tabaco em casa e no carro. Material e Métodos: Trata-se de um estudo transversal descritivo que inclui uma amostra representativa de 2396 crianças portuguesas dos 0 aos 9 anos de idade, estratificada por idade e por região administrativa NUTS II. A aplicação de questionários decorreu entre janeiro e setembro de 2016. Resultados: Verifica-se que 6,1% das mães e 11,2% dos pais fumam no domicílio. Constata-se que 4,5% das mães e 8,3% dos pais fumam no carro. Verifica-se também que 5,4% das crianças estão duplamente expostas ao fumo ambiental do tabaco em casa e no carro. As crianças cujos pais são fumadores e com menor nível de escolaridade, estão mais expostas ao fumo ambiental do tabaco em casa. Discussão: A exposição das crianças ao fumo ambiental do tabaco tem diminuído em Portugal. Ainda assim, o consumo de tabaco dos pais e um baixo nível de escolaridade são fatores de risco para a exposição das crianças em casa. Conclusão: Uma vez que a principal fonte de exposição das crianças ao fumo ambiental do tabaco é o tabagismo dos pais, é necessário promover a cessação tabágica junto dos mesmos, assim como implementar a proibição de fumar no carro.

[Indoor air pollution caused by cigarette smoke in public places in Portugal]. / Poluição do ar interior provocada pelo fumo do cigarro em locais públicos de Portugal.

OBJECTIVE: There have been few studies investigating the level of cigarette smoke pollution to which people in several public and private places are exposed. The purpose of this study was to quantify the level of air pollution produced by cigarette smoking in workplaces and leisure settings. METHODS: The study was carried out in Braga, Portugal, in 2005. Nicotine content in indoor air was measured using passive monitors containing a 37-mm diameter filter inside treated with sodium bisulphate. The monitors were installed in predefined public workplaces and leisure settings. Median nicotine content was estimated for each place studied. RESULTS: Nicotine was detected in 85% of the samples. Extremely high air contamination levels were found in discos with a median of 82.26 microg/m3, ranging between 5.79 and 106.31 microg/m3. Workplaces of public administration and university buildings showed the lowest nicotine content. CONCLUSIONS: The study findings confirm the need to promote the implementation of smoke-free policies in workplaces and leisure settings to protect workers' health and as a reinforcing measure of an environment which facilitates smokers to quit smoking.

Parents' educational level and second-hand tobacco smoke exposure at home in a sample of Portuguese children.

Second-hand tobacco smoke (SHS) exposure is a major and entirely avoidable health risk for children's health, well-being and development. The main objective of the current study was to investigate the association between parents' educational level and children's SHS home exposure. A self-administered questionnaire was conducted within a sample of 949 students in 4th grade (mean age 9.56±0.75, 53.4% male). The sample was randomly selected from all schools located at Lisbon District, Portugal. The current study confirmed that Portuguese children are exposed to unacceptable high levels of SHS at home, mainly by their parents' smoke. Prevalence of smokers was higher amongst parents with low educational level. Children of parents with low educational level were more likely to suffer SHS exposure at home. These results confirmed the social inequalities associated with smoking, support the relevance of more research on this subject and stress the need for more interventions to control this problem. Some interventions should be specifically aimed at less educated parents, particularly at less educated mothers.

Smoking trends in Portuguese school-aged children and approaches for a control--an analysis based on the Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) data.

While smoking has negative health consequences for children and adolescents, the major risk of smoking onset by these age groups is tobacco dependence, in most cases for the rest of their lives, which can later lead to the suffering of diseases related to smoking. This fact shows the importance of smoking prevention in teens to avoid the negative health, economic and environmental effects related to smoking. Although Portugal does not have a National Smoking Prevention Programme, some schools have developed prevention campaigns to control the spread of the tobacco epidemic. To determine the efficacy of smoking prevention campaigns developed in Portuguese schools we compared the data of smoking prevalence provided by Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) (11-15 years old) from 1997/98 and 2002. The results show the rise of smoking prevalence in students on both sexes, especially among girls. Data supports the conclusion that Portuguese schools are not effective in smoking prevention and in Portugal it is necessary to continue smoking prevention campaigns aimed at the younger children.

Children's exposure to second hand smoke at home: a cross-sectional study in Portugal.

Second-hand tobacco smoke (SHS) is a major indoor pollutant that causes serious health problems for all exposed, especially children. Children are often exposed to SHS at home, due to parental or other households' or guests' smoking. This study describes Portuguese children's exposure to SHS at home (total and by Portuguese main regions). In 2010/2011, a questionnaire was applied to a sample of Portuguese children in the 4th grade (N=3187, mean age 9.05±0.7 years, 51.1% male). Descriptive analysis, chi-square tests and crude odds ratios were performed. Of the participants, 62.9% of those with smoking parents and 19.2% of those with non-smoking parents were exposed to SHS at their home. Parental smoking varied significantly among regions and was significantly associated with children's exposure to SHS at home. Children's exposure to SHS at home was high, especially if their parents smoke. Children living in Lisbon Region presented the highest SHS exposure rate. The association of SHS exposure with geographic regions suggests the influence of social and contextual factors on smoking behaviour and on tobacco control effectiveness. Our findings highlight the need to effectively prevent children's SHS exposure at their home and to develop tailored tobacco control measures by region.

Portuguese children's exposure to second-hand tobacco smoke in the family car.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the prevalence of children's exposure to second-hand smoke in the family car; to compare exposure among children with smoking and non-smoking parents. METHODS: In 2011, a self-administered questionnaire was applied to a 4th grade Portuguese children national sample (N=3187, mean age 9.5 ± 0.7, 51.1% boys). Prevalence rates and chi-square tests were computed. RESULTS: Of the participants, 52.0% reported having, at least, one smoking parent. Overall exposure in the car was 28.9% (95% CI 27.3-30.5). Children's exposure among those reporting smoking parents was 46.9% (95% CI 44.4-49.4); and 8.6% (95% CI 7.1-10.1) among those reporting non-smoking parents (p<.001). Therefore, children with smoking parents were 5.44 times more likely to be exposed. CONCLUSIONS: Children's exposure to second-hand smoke in the family car is frequent, especially if one or both parents smoke. This highlights the need for effective tobacco control measures to prevent this severe health hazard.

[The global smoking prevention programme of Braga]. / O plano global de prevenção do tabagismo do Município de Braga.

In spite of its negative impacts on health, in the society, in the economy and in the environment, smoking is a behaviour spread national and internationally. The data collected in 1999 by the Health National Inquire about smoking prevalence in people from 15 and over, in Portugal mainland, show that 29.3% of men and around 7.9% of women were daily smokers, which means a total of 1,626,597 smokers (1,248,212 men and 378,385 women). If we analyse the data from other sources (Health National Inquires and Eurobarometer) we can see that the tobacco epidemy is growing among both gender but in a particulary alarming way in the female group. It is necessary and urgent to take some primary prevention measures especially addressed to young people and women and at the same time give all the smokers the chance of treatment. Bearing in mind the idea of the Ecologist Movement "thinking globally, acting locally" we defend the implementation of global but local actions as the best approach to control smoking. In this article we describe the state and the trends of smoking in Portugal as well as The Global Prevention Programme of Tobacco Consumption in Braga (North of Portugal). This action plan is intended to solve in a decisive way the tobacco consumption in Braga and at the same time to be taken as an example for the elaboration of a National Plan for Prevention the Tobacco Consumption.

Patterns of adherence to and compliance with the Portuguese smoke-free law in the leisure-hospitality sector.

BACKGROUND: In 2008, the Portuguese smoke-free law came into effect including partial bans in the leisure-hospitality (LH) sector. The objective of the study is to assess the prevalence of smoking control policies (total ban, smoking permission and designated smoking areas) adopted by the LH sector in Portugal. The levels of noncompliance with each policy are investigated as well as the main factors associated with smoking permission and noncompliance with the law. METHODS: Cross-sectional study conducted between January 2010 and May 2011. A random sample of venues was selected from the Portuguese LH sector database, proportionally stratified according to type, size and geographical area. All venues were assessed in loco by an observer. The independent effects of venues' characteristics on smoking permission and the level of noncompliance with the law were explored using logistic regression. RESULTS: Overall, 1.412 venues were included. Total ban policy was adopted by 75.9% of venues, while 8.4% had designated smoking areas. Smoking ban was more prevalent in restaurants (85.9%). Only 29.7% of discos/bars/pubs opted for complete ban. Full or partial smoking permission was higher in discos/bar/pubs (OR = 7.37; 95%CI 4.87 to 11.17). Noncompliance with the law was higher in venues allowing smoking and lower in places with complete ban (33.6% and 7.6% respectively, p<0.001). Discos/bars/pubs with full smoking permission had the highest level of noncompliance (OR = 3.31; 95%CI 1.40 to 7.83). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings show a high adherence to smoking ban policy by the Portuguese LH sector. Nonetheless, one quarter of the venues is fully or partially permissive towards smoking, with the discos/bars/pubs considerably contributing to this situation. Venues with smoking permission policies were less compliant with the legislation. The implementation of a comprehensive smoke-free law, without any exceptions, is essential to effectively protect people from the second hand smoke.