Effect of Moisture Content on Ion Diffusion and Glass Transition Temperature in Wood Cell Walls.

Understanding and controlling the diffusion of ions and chemicals within the secondary plant cell walls are pivotal in various applications of biomasses. Recent studies have shown that inorganic ion diffusion through secondary cell walls is controlled by a moisture-induced glass transition in amorphous polysaccharides, including amorphous cellulose and hemicelluloses. Understanding the diffusion of ions in these structures has been the subject of numerous recent experiments; however, a deep understanding of the underlying mechanisms of interactions between ion atoms and water/hemicellulose molecules is still lacking. This study uses molecular dynamics simulations to elucidate the diffusion mechanisms of potassium and chloride ions in the cell walls under varying moisture content. The results reveal that a higher moisture content leads to the formation of solvent layers around the ions and reduces the charge interaction between the functional groups of wood polymers and ions. Hence, a higher moisture content results in an improved diffusion rate of ions within the domain. The simulation results also show that higher moisture content lowers the glass transition temperature, promoting diffusion of ions in the system. In contrast, increases in the ion concentration increase the glass transition temperature of the system and degrade the diffusion of ions in the system.

Heterogeneity Profoundly Alters Emergent Stress Fields in Constrained Multicellular Systems.

Stress fields emerging from the transfer of forces between cells within multicellular systems are increasingly being recognized as major determinants of cell fate. Current analytical and numerical models used for the calculation of stresses within cell monolayers assume homogeneous contractile and mechanical cellular properties; however, cell behavior varies by region within constrained tissues. Here, we show the impact of heterogeneous cell properties on resulting stress fields that guide cell phenotype and apoptosis. Using circular micropatterns, we measured biophysical metrics associated with cell mechanical stresses. We then computed cell-layer stress distributions using finite element contraction models and monolayer stress microscopy. In agreement with previous studies, cell spread area, alignment, and traction forces increase, whereas apoptotic activity decreases, from the center of cell layers to the edge. The distribution of these metrics clearly indicates low cell stress in central regions and high cell stress at the periphery of the patterns. However, the opposite trend is predicted by computational models when homogeneous contractile and mechanical properties are assumed. In our model, utilizing heterogeneous cell-layer contractility and elastic moduli values based on experimentally measured biophysical parameters, we calculate low cell stress in central areas and high anisotropic stresses in peripheral regions, consistent with the biometrics. These results clearly demonstrate that common assumptions of uniformity in cell contractility and stiffness break down in postconfluence confined multicellular systems. This work highlights the importance of incorporating regional variations in cell mechanical properties when estimating emergent stress fields from collective cell behavior.

Concentration-Dependent, Membrane-Selective Activity of Human LL37 Peptides Modified with Collagen Binding Domain Sequences.

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) such as LL37 are promising alternatives to antibiotics to treat wound infections due to their broad activity, immunomodulatory functions, and low likelihood of antimicrobial resistance. To deliver LL37 to chronic wounds, we developed two chimeric LL37 peptides with C-terminal collagen binding domains (CBD) derived from collagenase ( cCBD-LL37) and fibronectin ( fCBD-LL37) as a strategy for noncovalent tethering of LL37 onto collagen-based, commercially available wound dressings. The addition of CBD sequences to LL37 resulted in differences in cytotoxicity against human fibroblasts and antimicrobial activity against common wound pathogens. In this study, we sought to determine the sequence-, structure-, and concentration-dependent properties underlying these differences in bioactivity. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations allowed visualization of the structure of each peptide and calculation of residue-level helicity, revealing that residues within the CBD domains were not helical. Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy affirmed that the overall structures of LL37 and each CBD-LL37 peptide was primarily helical (greater than 67%) in a membrane-like solvent. Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D) and imaging of fluorescent bilayers revealed unique, concentration-dependent interactions of each peptide with bilayers of different lipid compositions. Specifically, fCBD-LL37, which is less cytotoxic than LL37 and cCBD-LL37, demonstrated higher affinity toward anionic bilayers (model bacterial cell membranes) than zwitterionic bilayers (model mammalian cell membranes). In contrast, cCBD-LL37 and LL37 demonstrated similar affinities to both types of bilayers. This study demonstrates that the combination of MD, CD, and QCM-D may enable predictive modeling of the effects of primary sequence alterations on peptide secondary structure and membrane interactions. Understanding the structural and mechanistic properties of AMPs and their interactions with specific lipid bilayer compositions may enable the engineering of less cytotoxic AMPs with improved therapeutic indexes for human wound healing applications.

Thermal conductivity and rectification in asymmetric archaeal lipid membranes.

Nature employs lipids to construct nanostructured membranes that self-assemble in an aqueous environment to separate the cell interior from the exterior environment. Membrane composition changes among species and according to environmental conditions, which allows organisms to occupy a wide variety of different habitats. Lipid bilayers are phase-change materials that exhibit strong thermotropic and lyotropic phase behavior in an aqueous environment, which may also cause thermal rectification. Among different types of lipids, archaeal lipids are of great interest due to their ability to withstand extreme conditions. In this paper, nonequilibrium molecular dynamics simulations were employed to study the nanostructures and thermal properties of different archaeols and to investigate thermal rectification effects in asymmetric archaeal membranes. In particular, we are interested in understanding the role of bridged phytanyl chains and cyclopentane groups in controlling the phase transition temperature and heat flow across the membrane. Our results indicate that the bridged phytanyl chains decrease the molecular packing of lipids, whereas the existence of cyclopentane rings on the tail groups increases the molecular packing by enhancing the interactions between isoprenoid chains. We found that macrocyclic archaeols have the highest thermal conductivity, whereas macrocyclic archaeols with two cyclopentane rings have the lowest. The effect of the temperature on the variation of thermal conductivity was found to be progressive. Our results further indicate that small thermal rectification effects occur in asymmetric archaeol bilayer membranes at around 25 K temperature gradient. The calculated thermal rectification factor was around 0.09 which is in the range of rectification factor obtained experimentally for nanostructures such as carbon nanotubes (0.07). Such phenomena may be of biological significance and could also be optimized for use in various engineering applications.

Thinking globally, acting locally in the 21st century: Bamboo to bioproducts and cleaned mine sites.

Current solutions to global challenges place tension between global benefits and local impacts. The result is increasing opposition to implementation of beneficial climate policies. Prioritizing investment in projects with tangible local benefits that also contribute to global climate change can resolve this tension and make local communities' partners instead of antagonists to change; the approach advocated is a new take on "thinking globally, acting locally". This approach is a departure from the usual strategy of focusing resources on solutions perceived to have the largest potential global impact, without regards to local concerns. Reclamation of polluted mine sites by using fast growing bamboo to remove heavy metals provides a case study to show what is possible. Effective implementation of thinking globally while acting locally will require increased coordination between different types of researchers, new educational models, and greater stakeholder participation in problem identification and solution development.

Effect of Water on the Mechanical Properties of Cyclic Peptide Polymers.

Biomaterials are an important source of inspiration for the development of strong and tough materials. Many improved and optimized synthetic materials have been recently developed utilizing this bioinspiration concept. Using side-chain-to-side-chain polymerization of cyclic ß-peptide rings, a novel class of nanomaterials was recently introduced with outstanding mechanical properties such as toughness values greater than natural silks. In this work, molecular dynamics is used to understand the mechanics of side-chain-to-side-chain polymerization of cyclic ß-peptide rings. Unbiased steered molecular dynamics simulations are used to show the difference in the strength of polymerized and unpolymerized processing of similar cyclic rings. The simulations are performed both in aqueous and vacuum environments to capture the role of water on the mechanical properties of the cyclic peptides. Our results show that unpolymerized peptides behave like brittle material, whereas polymerized ones can withstand some stress after initial failure with large values of strain-to-failure. Finally, we have shown that the strength of cyclic peptides in water is higher than in a vacuum.

Influence of lyophilization primary drying time and temperature on porous silk scaffold fabrication for biomedical applications.

Lyophilization of protein solutions, such as silk fibroin (silk), produces porous scaffolds useful for tissue engineering (TE). The impact of modifying lyophilization primary drying parameters on scaffold properties has not yet been explored previously. In this work, changes to primary drying duration and temperature were investigated using 3%, 6%, 9%, and 12% (w/v) silk solutions, via protocols labeled as Long Hold, Slow Ramp, and Standard. The 9% and 12% scaffolds were not successfully fabricated using the Standard protocol, while the Long Hold and Slow Ramp protocols resulted in scaffolds from all silk solution concentrations. Scaffolds fabricated using the Long Hold protocol had higher Young's moduli, smaller pore Feret diameters, and faster degradation. To investigate the utility of the different lyophilized scaffolds for in vitro cell culturing, the HepaRG liver cell line was cultured in the 3% to 12% scaffolds fabricated using the Long Hold protocol. The HepaRG cells grown in 3% scaffolds initially had greater lipid accumulation and metabolic activity than the other groups, although these differences were no longer apparent by Day 28. The deoxyribonucleic acid content of the HepaRG cells grown in 3% scaffold group was also initially significantly higher than the other groups. Significant differences in gene expression by 9% scaffolded HepaRG cells (CK19, HNFα) were seen on Day 14 while significant differences by 12% scaffolded HepaRG cells (ALB, APOA4) were seen on Day 28. Overall, modifying the primary drying parameters and silk concentration resulted in lyophilized scaffolds with tunable properties useful for TE applications.

Anisotropy profoundly alters stress fields within contractile cells and cell aggregates.

Many biological phenomena such as cell proliferation and death are correlated with stress fields within cells. Stress fields are quantified using computational methods which rely on fundamental assumptions about local mechanical properties. Most existing methods such as Monolayer Stress Microscopy assume isotropic properties, yet experimental observations strongly suggest anisotropy. We first model anisotropy in circular cells analytically using Eshelby's inclusion method. Our solution reveals that uniform anisotropy cannot exist in cells due to the occurrence of substantial stress concentration in the central region. A more realistic non-uniform anisotropy model is then introduced based on experimental observations and implemented numerically which interestingly clears out stress concentration. Stresses within the entire aggregate also drastically change compared to the isotropic case, resulting in better agreement with observed biomarkers. We provide a physics-based mechanism to explain the low alignment of stress fibers in the center of cells, which might explain certain biological phenomena e.g., existence of disrupted rounded cells, and higher apoptosis rate at the center of circular aggregates.

Triptorelin-functionalized PEG-coated biosynthesized gold nanoparticles: Effects of receptor-ligand interactions on adhesion to triple negative breast cancer cells.

This paper presents the results of an experimental and computational study of the adhesion of triptorelin-conjugated PEG-coated biosynthesized gold nanoparticles (GNP-PEG-TRP) to triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells. The adhesion is studied at the nanoscale using a combination of atomic force microscopy (AFM) experiments and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The AFM measurements showed that the triptorelin-functionalized gold nanoparticles (GNP-TRP and GNP-PEG-TRP) have higher adhesion to triple-negative breast cancer cells (TNBC) than non-tumorigenic breast cells. The increased adhesion of GNP-TRP and GNP-PEG-TRP to TNBC is also attributed to the overexpression of LHRH receptors on the surfaces of both TNBC. Finally, the molecular dynamics model reveals insights into the effects of receptor density, molecular configuration, and receptor-ligand docking characteristics on the interactions of triptorelin-functionalized PEG-coated gold nanoparticles with TNBC. A three to nine-fold increase in the adhesion is predicted between triptorelin-functionalized PEG-coated gold nanoparticles and TNBC cells. The implications of the results are then discussed for the specific targeting of TNBC.

Laser-induced heating of polydimethylsiloxane-magnetite nanocomposites for hyperthermic inhibition of triple-negative breast cancer cell proliferation.

This paper presents the results of an experimental and computational study of the effects of laser-induced heating provided by magnetite nanocomposite structures that are being developed for the localized hyperthermic treatment of triple-negative breast cancer. Magnetite nanoparticle-reinforced polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) nanocomposites were fabricated with weight percentages of 1%, 5%, and 10% magnetite nanoparticles. The nanocomposites were exposed to incident Near Infrared (NIR) laser beams with well-controlled powers. The laser-induced heating is explored in: (i) heating liquid media (deionized water and cell growth media [Leibovitz L15+]) to characterize the photothermal properties of the nanocomposites, (ii) in vitro experiments that explore the effects of localized heating on triple-negative breast cancer cells, and (iii) experiments in which the laser beams penetrate through chicken tissue to heat up nanocomposite samples embedded at different depths beneath the chicken skin. The resulting plasmonic laser-induced heating is explained using composite theories and heat transport models. The results show that the laser/nanocomposite interactions decrease the viability of triple-negative breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231) at temperatures in the hyperthermia domain between 41 and 44°C. Laser irradiation did not cause any observed physical damage to the chicken tissue. The potential in vivo performance of the PDMS nanocomposites was also investigated using computational finite element models of the effects of laser/magnetite nanocomposite interactions on the temperatures and thermal doses experienced by tissues that surround the nanocomposite devices. The implications of the results are then discussed for the development of implantable nanocomposite devices for localized treatment of triple-negative breast cancer tissue via hyperthermia.

Compressive deformation of Bambusa Vulgaris-Schrad in the transverse and longitudinal orientations.

This paper presents the results of theoretical and experimental studies of the compressive deformation of bamboo (Bambusa Vulgaris-Schrad) in the middle section. The deformation mechanisms are elucidated via in-situ observations of deformation in specimens oriented for loading in directions that are either longitudinal or transverse. Compressive deformation is shown to result in progressive micro-buckling and kink band formation. The onset of micro-buckling is also shown to be well predicted by an Euler buckling model. The critical loads for failure in the transverse orientation are also shown to be consistent with the conditions for shear yielding in the plies with fibers that are oriented in an orthogonal direction to the loading axis.

Effects of loading rate on the of mechanical behavior of the femur in falling condition.

The Surgeon General estimates that by 2020, half of all Americans could have weak bones due to bone loss. Osteoporosis causes more than 1.5 million fractures every year. Identifying effective interventions based on individual patient characteristics remains a major challenge. Proximal femur fractures are common and devastating events for individuals with osteoporosis. Since fracture is primarily a mechanical event, noninvasive predictions of fracture strength and location would be useful both for identifying at-risk individuals and evaluating treatment effects. However, bone fracture prediction is complicated due to the complex microstructure and nanostructure of bone. Bone is a highly heterogeneous material with rate-dependent mechanical behavior and large inter-individual variation. In this study, we designed two mechanical test procedures to understand the mechanical response of bone under impact and quasi-static load tests. The boundary conditions of the tests were designed in a way to simulate a fall to the side. The present study consists of three main parts: cadaver testing, quantitative image analysis, and finite element (FE) modeling. We obtained ten human femur bones and used high-resolution CT to quantify the microstructure and density of each sample. Specimen-specific FE models were created to evaluate the ability of various failure criteria to predict experimental fracture. Afterward, the samples were tested and their failure patterns were recorded. The fractured samples were rescanned to analyze the fractured surfaces. Our experimental results show that the loading necessary to fracture the femur samples is much higher in the impact tests. However, the toughening mechanisms are more pronounced in quasi-static tests. We found that FE model formulations were able to accurately predict femur stiffness and strength for quasi-static and impact conditions separately, but that no single formulation could account for the rate-dependent outcomes.

Investigation of adhesive interactions in the specific targeting of Triptorelin-conjugated PEG-coated magnetite nanoparticles to breast cancer cells.

The understanding of adhesive interaction at the nanoscale between functionalized nanoparticles and biological cells is of great importance to develop effective theranostic nanocarriers for targeted cancer therapy. Here, we report a combination of experimental and computational approaches to evaluate the adhesion between Triptorelin (a Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone (LHRH) agonist)-conjugated poly-(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-coated magnetite nanoparticles (Triptorelin-MNPs) and breast cells. The adhesion forces between Triptorelin-MNPs and normal/cancerous breast cells are obtained using atomic force microscopy. The corresponding work of adhesion is then estimated using Johnson-Kendall-Roberts model. Our results demonstrate that Triptorelin-MNPs have a fourteen-fold greater work of adhesion to breast cancer cells than to normal breast cells. In addition, the work of adhesion between Triptorelin-MNPs and breast cancer cells is found to be three times more than that between unmodified MNPs and breast cancer cells. Hence, the experimental observation indicates that Triptorelin ligands facilitate the specific targeting of breast cancer cells. Furthermore, molecular dynamics simulations are performed to investigate the molecular origins of the adhesive interactions. The simulations reveal that the interactions between molecules (e.g. Triptorelin and PEG) and LHRH receptors are dominated by van der Waals energies, while the interactions of these molecules with cell membrane are dominated by electrostatic interactions. Moreover, both experimental and computational results reveal that PEG serves as an effective coating that enhances adhesive interactions to breast cancer cells that over-express LHRH receptors, while reduces the adhesion to normal breast cells. Our results highlight the potential to develop Triptorelin-MNPs into tumor-specific MRI contrast agents and drug carriers. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Systematic investigation of adhesive interactions between functionalized nanoparticles and cancer cells is of great importance in developing effective theranostic nanocarriers for targeted cancer therapy. Herein, we use a combination of atomic force microscopy technique and molecular dynamics simulations approach to explore the adhesive interactions at the nanoscale between Triptorelin-conjugated polyethylene glycol (PEG)-coated magnetite nanoparticles and normal/cancerous breast cells. This study characterizes and quantifies the work of adhesion, as well as adhesion forces, at the nanocarrier/cell interfaces, unravels the molecular origins of adhesive interactions and highlights the effectiveness of PEG coatings and Triptorelin ligands in the specific targeting of breast cancer cells. Our findings expand the fundamental understanding of nanoparticle/cell adhesion and provide guidelines for the design of more rational nanocarriers.

Reverse pneumatic artificial muscles (rPAMs): Modeling, integration, and control.

Despite offering many advantages over traditional rigid actuators, soft pneumatic actuators suffer from a lack of comprehensive, computationally efficient models and precise embedded control schemes without bulky flow-control valves and extensive computer hardware. In this article, we consider an inexpensive and reliable soft linear actuator, called the reverse pneumatic artificial muscle (rPAM), which consists of silicone rubber that is radially constrained by symmetrical double-helix threading. We describe analytical and numerical static models of this actuator, and compare their performance against experimental results. To study the application of rPAMs to operate underlying kinematic linkage skeletons, we consider a single degree-of-freedom revolute joint that is driven antagonistically by two of these actuators. An analytical model is then derived, and its accuracy in predicting the static joint angle as a function of input pressures is presented. Using this analytical model, we perform dynamic characterization of this system. Finally, we propose a sliding-mode controller, and a sliding mode controller augmented by a feed-forward term to modulate miniature solenoid valves that control air flow to each actuator. Experiments show that both controllers function well, while the feed-forward term improves the performance of the controller following dynamic trajectories.

Polymeric composite devices for localized treatment of early-stage breast cancer.

For early-stage breast cancers mastectomy is an aggressive form of treatment. Therefore, there is a need for new treatment strategies that can enhance the use of lumpectomy by eliminating residual cancer cells with limited side effects to reduce local recurrence. Although, various radiotherapy-based methods have been developed, residual cells are found in 20-55% of the time at the first operation. Furthermore, some current treatment methods result in poor cosmesis. For the last decade, the authors have been exploring the use of polymeric composite materials in single and multi-modal implantable biomedical devices for post-operative treatment of breast cancer. In this paper, the concept and working principles of the devices, as well as selected results from experimental and numerical investigations, are presented. The results show the potential of the biomedical implants for cancer treatment.

Variation of thermal conductivity of DPPC lipid bilayer membranes around the phase transition temperature.

Given their amphiphilic nature and chemical structure, phospholipids exhibit a strong thermotropic and lyotropic phase behaviour in an aqueous environment. Around the phase transition temperature, phospholipids transform from a gel-like state to a fluid crystalline structure. In this transition, many key characteristics of the lipid bilayers such as structure and thermal properties alter. In this study, we employed atomistic simulation techniques to study the structure and underlying mechanisms of heat transfer in dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) lipid bilayers around the fluid-gel phase transformation. To investigate this phenomenon, we performed non-equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations for a range of different temperature gradients. The results show that the thermal properties of the DPPC bilayer are highly dependent on the temperature gradient. Higher temperature gradients cause an increase in the thermal conductivity of the DPPC lipid bilayer. We also found that the thermal conductivity of DPPC is lowest at the transition temperature whereby one lipid leaflet is in the gel phase and the other is in the liquid crystalline phase. This is essentially related to a growth in thermal resistance between the two leaflets of lipid at the transition temperature. These results provide significant new insights into developing new thermal insulation for engineering applications.

A model for contaminant mass flux in capped sediment under consolidation.

The paper presents a model for contaminant transport and flux through a consolidating subaqueous sediment and overlying cap. The formulation is based on the effect of consolidation and excess pore pressure dissipation on transient, nonlinear advective component of transport through sediment and the cap. The consolidation is induced by the buoyant weight of the cap when it is placed on the contaminated sediments. One equation is presented for advective-diffusive transport through the sediment that is dependent upon soil/contaminant properties and transient advective velocity, which is calculated from a second equation based on the Terzaghi consolidation theory. A third equation is provided to describe the transport of contaminants in the cap. The parameters, including advective velocity, and boundary conditions used for contaminant transport through the cap are derived from the solution of the first two equations. The finite difference method is used to solve the system of equations for consolidation and contaminant transport. A hypothetical case is analyzed to demonstrate the formulation, and the results show that advection due to consolidation can accelerate breakthrough of contaminant through the cap by orders of magnitude. The derivation and results show that consolidation should be included for cap design, and that reactive caps are essential for delaying and reducing dissolved contaminant flux.

Toughening mechanisms in bioinspired multilayered materials.

Outstanding mechanical properties of biological multilayered materials are strongly influenced by nanoscale features in their structure. In this study, mechanical behaviour and toughening mechanisms of abalone nacre-inspired multilayered materials are explored. In nacre's structure, the organic matrix, pillars and the roughness of the aragonite platelets play important roles in its overall mechanical performance. A micromechanical model for multilayered biological materials is proposed to simulate their mechanical deformation and toughening mechanisms. The fundamental hypothesis of the model is the inclusion of nanoscale pillars with near theoretical strength (σth ~ E/30). It is also assumed that pillars and asperities confine the organic matrix to the proximity of the platelets, and, hence, increase their stiffness, since it has been previously shown that the organic matrix behaves more stiffly in the proximity of mineral platelets. The modelling results are in excellent agreement with the available experimental data for abalone nacre. The results demonstrate that the aragonite platelets, pillars and organic matrix synergistically affect the stiffness of nacre, and the pillars significantly contribute to the mechanical performance of nacre. It is also shown that the roughness induced interactions between the organic matrix and aragonite platelet, represented in the model by asperity elements, play a key role in strength and toughness of abalone nacre. The highly nonlinear behaviour of the proposed multilayered material is the result of distributed deformation in the nacre-like structure due to the existence of nano-asperities and nanopillars with near theoretical strength. Finally, tensile toughness is studied as a function of the components in the microstructure of nacre.

Nanostructural Characteristics and Interfacial Properties of Polymer Fibers in Cement Matrix.

Concrete is the most used material in the world. It is also one of the most versatile yet complex materials that humans have used for construction. However, an important weakness of concrete (cement-based composites) is its low tensile properties. Therefore, over the past 30 years many studies were focused on improving its tensile properties using a variety of physical and chemical methods. One of the most successful attempts is to use polymer fibers in the structure of concrete to obtain a composite with high tensile strength and ductility. The advantages of polymer fiber as reinforcing material in concrete, both with regard to reducing environmental pollution and the positive effects on a country's economy, are beyond dispute. However, a thorough understanding of the mechanical behavior of fiber-reinforced concrete requires a knowledge of fiber/matrix interfaces at the nanoscale. In this study, a combination of atomistic simulations and experimental techniques has been used to study the nanostructure of fiber/matrix interfaces. A new model for calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H)/fiber interfaces is also proposed on the basis of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analyses. Finally, the adhesion energy between the C-S-H gel and three different polymeric fibers (poly(vinyl alcohol), nylon-6, and polypropylene) were numerically studied at the atomistic level because adhesion plays a key role in the design of ductile fiber-reinforced composites. The mechanisms of adhesion as a function of the nanostructure of fiber/matrix interfaces are further studied and discussed. It is observed that the functional group in the structure of polymer macromolecule affects the adhesion energy primarily by changing the C/S ratio of the C-S-H at the interface and by absorbing additional positive ions in the C-S-H structure.