Diverse targets of the transcription factor STAT3 contribute to T cell pathogenicity and homeostasis.

STAT3, an essential transcription factor with pleiotropic functions, plays critical roles in the pathogenesis of autoimmunity. Despite recent data linking STAT3 with inflammatory bowel disease, exactly how it contributes to chronic intestinal inflammation is not known. Using a T cell transfer model of colitis, we found that STAT3 expression in T cells was essential for the induction of both colitis and systemic inflammation. STAT3 was critical in modulating the balance of T helper 17 (Th17) and regulatory T (Treg) cells, as well as in promoting CD4(+) T cell proliferation. We used chromatin immunoprecipitation and massive parallel sequencing (ChIP-Seq) to define the genome-wide targets of STAT3 in CD4(+) T cells. We found that STAT3 bound to multiple genes involved in Th17 cell differentiation, cell activation, proliferation, and survival, regulating both expression and epigenetic modifications. Thus, STAT3 orchestrates multiple critical aspects of T cell function in inflammation and homeostasis.

Discrete roles of STAT4 and STAT6 transcription factors in tuning epigenetic modifications and transcription during T helper cell differentiation.

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 4 (STAT4) and STAT6 are key factors in the specification of helper T cells; however, their direct roles in driving differentiation are not well understood. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation and massive parallel sequencing, we quantitated the full complement of STAT-bound genes, concurrently assessing global STAT-dependent epigenetic modifications and gene transcription by using cells from cognate STAT-deficient mice. STAT4 and STAT6 each bound over 4000 genes with distinct binding motifs. Both played critical roles in maintaining chromatin configuration and transcription of a core subset of genes through the combination of different epigenetic patterns. Globally, STAT4 had a more dominant role in promoting active epigenetic marks, whereas STAT6 had a more prominent role in antagonizing repressive marks. Clusters of genes negatively regulated by STATs were also identified, highlighting previously unappreciated repressive roles of STATs. Therefore, STAT4 and STAT6 play wide regulatory roles in T helper cell specification.

Lyn kinase controls basophil GATA-3 transcription factor expression and induction of Th2 cell differentiation.

T helper 1 (Th1)-Th2 cell balance is key to host defense and its dysregulation has pathophysiological consequences. Basophils are important in Th2 cell differentiation. However, the factors controlling the onset and extent of basophil-mediated Th2 cell differentiation are unknown. Here, we demonstrate that Lyn kinase dampened basophil expression of the transcription factor GATA-3 and the initiation and extent of Th2 cell differentiation. Lyn-deficient mice had a marked basophilia, a constitutive Th2 cell skewing that was exacerbated upon in vivo challenge of basophils, produced antibodies to a normally inert antigen, and failed to appropriately respond to a Th1 cell-inducing pathogen. The Th2 cell skewing was dependent on basophils, immunoglobulin E, and interleukin-4, but was independent of mast cells. Our findings demonstrate that basophil-expressed Lyn kinase exerts regulatory control on Th2 cell differentiation and function.

Generation of pathogenic T(H)17 cells in the absence of TGF-ß signalling.

CD4(+) T-helper cells that selectively produce interleukin (IL)-17 (T(H)17), are critical for host defence and autoimmunity. Although crucial for T(H)17 cells in vivo, IL-23 has been thought to be incapable of driving initial differentiation. Rather, IL-6 and transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß1 have been proposed to be the factors responsible for initiating specification. Here we show that T(H)17 differentiation can occur in the absence of TGF-ß signalling. Neither IL-6 nor IL-23 alone efficiently generated T(H)17 cells; however, these cytokines in combination with IL-1ß effectively induced IL-17 production in naive precursors, independently of TGF-ß. Epigenetic modification of the Il17a, Il17f and Rorc promoters proceeded without TGF-ß1, allowing the generation of cells that co-expressed RORγt (encoded by Rorc) and T-bet. T-bet(+)RORγt(+) T(H)17 cells are generated in vivo during experimental allergic encephalomyelitis, and adoptively transferred T(H)17 cells generated with IL-23 without TGF-ß1 were pathogenic in this disease model. These data indicate an alternative mode for T(H)17 differentiation. Consistent with genetic data linking IL23R with autoimmunity, our findings re-emphasize the importance of IL-23 and therefore may have therapeutic implications.

Interleukin-2 inhibits FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 receptor ligand (flt3L)-dependent development and function of conventional and plasmacytoid dendritic cells.

Steady-state development of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) and conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) requires the ligand for FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 receptor (flt3L), but little is known about how other cytokines may also control this process. In this study, we show that IL-2 inhibits the development of both pDCs and cDCs from bone marrow cells under flt3L stimulation, by acting on lineage(-) flt3(+) precursors. This inhibition of DC development by IL-2 requires IL-2Rα and IL2Rß. IL-2Rα is specifically expressed in one stage of the DC precursor: the monocyte and DC progenitors (MDPs). Furthermore, more MDPs are found in flt3L-stimulated bone marrow cultures when IL-2 is present, suggesting that IL-2 may be inhibiting DC development at the MDP stage. Consistent with our in vitro findings, we observe that nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice, which express less IL-2 compared with diabetes-resistant NOD.Idd3/5 mice, have more splenic pDCs. Additionally, DCs developed in vitro in the presence of flt3L and IL-2 display reduced ability to stimulate T-cell proliferation compared with DCs developed in the presence of flt3L alone. Although the addition of IL-2 does not increase the apoptosis of DCs during their development, DCs developed in the presence of IL-2 are more prone to apoptosis upon interaction with T cells. Together our data show that IL-2 can inhibit both the development and the function of DCs. This pathway may have implications for the loss of immune tolerance: Reduced IL-2 signaling may lead to increased DC number and T-cell stimulatory capacity.

STAT5 isoforms: controversies and clarifications.

STAT (signal transducer and activator of transcription) family transcription factors are critical regulators of the development and differentiation of many cell types. STAT isoforms are generated by alternative splicing, but have also been suggested to be generated post-transcriptionally. In this issue of the Biochemical Journal, Schuster and colleagues have identified cathepsin G as the protease that cleaves full-length STAT5 (STAT5alpha) to generate a C-terminally truncated form in immature myeloid cells. However, the authors argue that this proteolytically generated isoform does not occur naturally in vivo; rather, it is artificially generated by cathepsin G during the preparation of cell extracts. This new evidence calls into question the physiological significance of this putative isoform and forces the general re-examination of proteolytically generated STAT isoforms.

Jak3-independent trafficking of the common gamma chain receptor subunit: chaperone function of Jaks revisited.

Janus kinases (Jaks) play an essential role in cytokine signaling and have been reported to regulate plasma membrane expression of their cognate receptors. In this study, we examined whether Jak3 and the common gamma chain (gamma(c)) reciprocally regulate their plasma membrane expression. In contrast to interleukin-2Ralpha, gamma(c) localized poorly to the plasma membrane and accumulated in endosomal-lysosomal compartments. However, gamma(c) was expressed at comparable levels on the surface of cells lacking Jak3, and plasma membrane turnover of gamma(c) was independent of Jak3. Nonetheless, overexpression of Jak3 enhanced accumulation of gamma(c) at the plasma membrane. Without gamma(c), Jak3 localized in the cytosol, whereas in the presence of the receptor, it colocalized with gamma(c) in endosomes and at the plasma membrane. Although the Jak FERM domain is necessary and sufficient for receptor binding, the requirement for full-length Jak3 in gamma(c) membrane trafficking was remarkably stringent; using truncation and deletion mutants, we showed that the entire Jak3 molecule was required, although kinase activity was not. Thus, unlike other cytokine receptors, gamma(c) does not require Jak3 for receptor membrane expression. However, full-length Jak3 is required for normal trafficking of this cytokine receptor/Jak pair, a finding that has important structural and clinical implications.

A single-dose PK study of onapristone including the effect of food on absorption.

PURPOSE: Onapristone is an antiprogestin with activity in breast cancer and is under investigation for use in endometrial, ovarian and prostate cancers. Megestrol acetate and abiraterone generally show variability in absorption and, depending on the formulation, food effect. This study was conducted to determine the effect of food on 10 mg oral immediate-release (IR) onapristone and to help identify a formulation to minimize variability. METHODS: This is an open-label, randomized, crossover study to determine the pharmacokinetic profile of onapristone and its main metabolite, N-mono-desmethyl onapristone. Twelve healthy female subjects received 10 mg of oral IR onapristone after an overnight fast, or within 30 min of a high-fat, high-calorie meal with a 2-week washout between dosing periods. RESULTS: Onapristone plasma t1/2 (mean ± SD) was 4.36 ± 0.81 h for the fasted state and 3.76 ± 0.36 h for the fed state. Following food, onapristone tmax was delayed from 1 to 4 h. Food intake was also associated with a small increase in AUC0-∞ of approximately 13 % and a statistically significant decrease in Cmax of approximately 18 %. One subject experienced a 23-day delay in menses after one 10 mg onapristone dose, while another subject experienced transient grade 2 NCI-CTCAE liver enzyme elevation 3 weeks post dose. CONCLUSION: The results are consistent with previous observations, indicating that there is a small increase in onapristone exposure and a significant decrease in Cmax when taken with food. These changes are within acceptable limits set out by the FDA. Thus, our findings indicate that onapristone could be administered without regard to food.

Tpl2 kinase regulates T cell interferon-gamma production and host resistance to Toxoplasma gondii.

Tpl2 (Tumor progression locus 2), also known as Cot/MAP3K8, is a hematopoietically expressed serine-threonine kinase. Tpl2 is known to have critical functions in innate immunity in regulating tumor necrosis factor-alpha, Toll-like receptor, and G protein-coupled receptor signaling; however, our understanding of its physiological role in T cells is limited. We investigated the potential roles of Tpl2 in T cells and found that it was induced by interleukin-12 in human and mouse T cells in a Stat4-dependent manner. Deficiency of Tpl2 was associated with impaired interferon (IFN)-gamma production. Accordingly, Tpl2(-/-) mice had impaired host defense against Toxoplasma gondii with reduced parasite clearance and decreased IFN-gamma production. Furthermore, reconstitution of Rag2(-/-) mice with Tpl2-deficient T cells followed by T. gondii infection recapitulated the IFN-gamma defect seen in the Tpl2-deficient mice, confirming a T cell-intrinsic defect. CD4(+) T cells isolated from Tpl2(-/-) mice showed poor induction of T-bet and failure to up-regulate Stat4 protein, which is associated with impaired TCR-dependent extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation. These data underscore the role of Tpl2 as a regulator of T helper cell lineage decisions and demonstrate that Tpl2 has an important functional role in the regulation of Th1 responses.