compareMS2 2.0: An Improved Software for Comparing Tandem Mass Spectrometry Datasets.

It has long been known that biological species can be identified from mass spectrometry data alone. Ten years ago, we described a method and software tool, compareMS2, for calculating a distance between sets of tandem mass spectra, as routinely collected in proteomics. This method has seen use in species identification and mixture characterization in food and feed products, as well as other applications. Here, we present the first major update of this software, including a new metric, a graphical user interface and additional functionality. The data have been deposited to ProteomeXchange with dataset identifier PXD034932.

Lower levels of Persistent Organic Pollutants, metals and the marine omega 3-fatty acid DHA in farmed compared to wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).

Contaminants and fatty acid levels in farmed- versus wild Atlantic salmon have been a hot topic of debate in terms of food safety. The present study determined dioxins (polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and dibenzofuran), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), metals and fatty acids in wild and farmed Atlantic salmon. Contaminant levels of dioxins, PCBs, OCPs (DDT, dieldrin, lindane, chlordane, Mirex, and toxaphene), and mercury were higher in wild salmon than in farmed salmon, as were the concentrations of the essential elements selenium, copper, zinc and iron, and the marine omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). PBDE, endosulfan, pentachlorobenzene, hexachlorobenzene, cadmium and lead levels were low and comparable in both wild and farmed fish, and there was no significant difference in the marine omega-3 fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) concentration. The total fat content was significantly higher in farmed than wild salmon due to a higher content of both saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, as well as a higher content of omega-6 fatty acids. The omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acid ratio was considerably lower in farmed than wild salmon due to the high level of omega-6 fatty acids. Contaminant concentrations in Atlantic salmon were well below maximum levels applicable in the European Union. Atlantic salmon, both farmed and wild, is a good source of EPA and DHA with a 200g portion per week contributing 3.2g or 2.8g respectively, being almost twice the intake considered adequate for adults by the European Food Safety Authority (i.e. 250mg/day or 1.75g/week).

Fish pre-acclimation temperature only modestly affects cadmium toxicity in Atlantic salmon hepatocytes.

An emerging focus in environmental toxicology is how climate change will alter bioavailability and uptake of contaminants in organisms. Ectothermic animals unable to adjust their temperature by local migration, such as farmed fish kept in net pens, may become more vulnerable to contaminants in warmer seas. The aim of this work was to study cadmium (Cd) toxicity in cells obtained from fish acclimated to sub-optimal growth temperature. Atlantic salmon hepatocytes, harvested from fish pre-acclimated either at 15°C (optimal growth temperature) or 20°C (heat-stressed), were exposed in vitro to two concentrations of Cd (control, 1 and 100µM Cd) for 48h. Cd-induced cytotoxicity, determined with the xCELLigence system, was more pronounced in cells from fish pre-acclimated to a high temperature than in cells from fish grown at optimal temperature. A feed spiked with antioxidants could not ameliorate the Cd-induced cytotoxicity in cells from temperature-stressed fish. At the transcriptional level, Cd exposure affected 11 out of 20 examined genes, of which most are linked to oxidative stress. The transcriptional levels of a majority of the altered genes were changed in cells harvested from fish grown at sub-optimal temperature. Interaction effects between Cd exposure and fish pre-acclimation temperature were seen for four transcripts, hmox1, mapk1, fth1 and mmp13. Overall, this study shows that cells from temperature-stressed fish are modestly more vulnerable to Cd stress, and indicate that mechanisms linked to oxidative stress may be differentially affected in temperature-stressed cells.

Selenium status affects selenoprotein expression, reproduction, and F1 generation locomotor activity in zebrafish (Danio rerio).

Se is an essential trace element, and is incorporated into selenoproteins which play important roles in human health. Mammalian selenoprotein-coding genes are often present as paralogues in teleost fish, and it is unclear whether the expression patterns or functions of these fish paralogues reflect their mammalian orthologues. Using the model species zebrafish (Danio rerio; ZF), we aimed to assess how dietary Se affects key parameters in Se metabolism and utilisation including glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activity, the mRNA expression of key Se-dependent proteins (gpx1a, gpx1b, sepp1a and sepp1b), oxidative status, reproductive success and F1 generation locomotor activity. From 27 d until 254 d post-fertilisation, ZF were fed diets with graded levels of Se ranging from deficient ( < 0·10 mg/kg) to toxic (30 mg/kg). The mRNA expression of gpx1a and gpx1b and GPX activity responded in a similar manner to changes in Se status. GPX activity and mRNA levels were lowest when dietary Se levels (0·3 mg/kg) resulted in the maximum growth of ZF, and a proposed bimodal mechanism in response to Se status below and above this dietary Se level was identified. The expression of the sepp1 paralogues differed, with only sepp1a responding to Se status. High dietary Se supplementation (30 mg/kg) decreased reproductive success, while the offspring of ZF fed above 0·3 mg Se/kg diet had lower locomotor activity than the other groups. Overall, the novel finding of low selenoprotein expression and activity coinciding with maximum body growth suggests that even small Se-induced variations in redox status may influence cellular growth rates.

Refined mackerel oil increases hepatic lipid accumulation and reduces choline and choline-containing metabolites in the liver tissue in mice fed a Western diet.

In this study, we aimed to evaluate the impact of consuming refined mackerel oil (MO) from rest raw material on hepatic fat accumulation, glucose tolerance, and metabolomic changes in the liver from male C57BL/6N mice. The mice were fed either a Western diet (WD) or a chow diet, with 30 g or 60 g MO per kg of diet (3% or 6%) for 13 weeks. Body weight, energy intake, and feed efficiency were monitored throughout the experiment. A glucose tolerance test was conducted after 11 weeks, and metabolomic analyses of the liver were performed at termination. Inclusion of MO in the WD, but not in the chow diet, led to increased liver weight, hepatic lipid accumulation, elevated fasting blood glucose, reduced glucose tolerance, and insulin sensitivity. Hepatic levels of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid increased, but no changes in levels of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids were observed. The liver metabolomic profile was different between mice fed a WD with or without MO, with a reduction in choline ether lipids, phosphatidylcholines, and sphingomyelins in mice fed MO. This study demonstrates that supplementing the WD, but not the chow diet, with refined MO accelerates accumulation of hepatic fat droplets and negatively affects blood glucose regulation. The detrimental effects of supplementing a WD with MO were accompanied by increased fat digestibility and overall energy intake, and lower levels of choline and choline-containing metabolites in liver tissue.

Seasonal variations in mercury, cadmium, lead and arsenic species in Norwegian blue mussels (Mytilus edulis L.) - Assessing the influence of biological and environmental factors.

BACKGROUND: Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis L.) can accumulate undesirable substances, including the potentially toxic elements (PTEs) cadmium (Cd), mercury, (Hg), lead (Pb), arsenic (As) and As species. In this study, the levels of PTEs and As species were determined in samples of blue mussels to assess the influence of environmental and biological factors, and evaluate the potential risk associated with blue mussels in terms of food and feed safety. METHODOLOGY: Blue mussels were collected monthly from one location in Western Norway from February 2018 to December 2018, and from April 2019 to April 2020. Samples were analyzed for PTEs using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to ICP-MS. Temperature, salinity and fluorescence (chlorophyll a) were monitored in the seawater column by STD/CTD, to assess the potential influence of these environmental factors on the PTE levels in the mussels. RESULTS: The results showed seasonal variations in the PTEs, with somewhat higher concentrations in spring and winter months. Unusually high levels of total As (101.2 mg kg-1 dw) and inorganic As (53.6 mg kg-1 dw) were observed for some of the time points. The organic As species arsenobetaine was generally the major As species (17-82% of total As) in the mussels, but also simple methylated As species and arsenosugars were detected. Principal components analysis (PCA) did not show a consistent relationship between the environmental factors and the PTE concentrations, showing contrary results for some elements for the periods studied. The condition index (CI) could explain variations in element concentration with significant correlations for Cd (r = -0.67, p = 0.009) and Pb (r = -0.62, p = 0.02 in 2019/20 and r = -0.52, p = 0.02 in 2018), whereas the correlation between As and CI was not significant (r = 0.12 in 2018, and r = -0.06 in 2019/20). Higher concentrations of iAs and arsenosugars coincided with increased signals of chlorophyll a, suggesting that phytoplankton blooms could be a source of As in the blue mussels. CONCLUSION: To our knowledge, this is the first study of As species in blue mussels collected over a time period of two years, providing an insight into the natural variations of these chemical forms in mussels. In terms of mussel as food and future feed material, concentrations of Cd, Hg and Pb were below the maximum levels (MLs) established in the EU food and feed legislation. However, levels of As and iAs in mussels at some time points exceeded the MLs for As in the feed legislation, and the margin of exposure (MOE) was low if these mussels were for human consumption, highlighting the importance of determining the chemical forms of As in feed and food.

Co-exposure to UV radiation and crude oil increases acute embryotoxicity and sublethal malformations in the early life stages of Atlantic haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus).

Crude oil causes severe abnormalities in developing fish. Photomodification of constituents in crude oil increases its toxicity several fold. We report on the effect of crude oil, in combination with ultraviolet (UV) radiation, on Atlantic haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) embryos. Accumulation of crude oil on the eggshell makes haddock embryos particularly susceptible to exposure. At high latitudes, they can be exposed to UV radiation many hours a day. Haddock embryos were exposed to crude oil (5-300 µg oil/L nominal loading concentrations) for three days in the presence and absence of UV radiation (290-400 nm). UV radiation partly degraded the eggs' outer membrane resulting in less accumulation of oil droplets in the treatment with highest oil concentration (300 µg oil/L). The co-exposure treatments resulted in acute toxicity, manifested by massive tissue necrosis and subsequent mortality, reducing LC50 at hatching stage by 60 % to 0.24 µg totPAH/L compared to 0.62 µg totPAH/L in crude oil only. In the treatment with nominal low oil concentrations (5-30 µg oil/L), only co-exposure to UV led to sublethal morphological heart defects. Including phototoxicity as a parameter in risk assessments of accidental oil spills is recommended.

Crude oil exposure of early life stages of Atlantic haddock suggests threshold levels for developmental toxicity as low as 0.1 µg total polyaromatic hydrocarbon (TPAH)/L.

Atlantic haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) embryos bind dispersed crude oil droplets to the eggshell and are consequently highly susceptible to toxicity from spilled oil. We established thresholds for developmental toxicity and identified any potential long-term or latent adverse effects that could impair the growth and survival of individuals. Embryos were exposed to oil for eight days (10, 80 and 300 µg oil/L, equivalent to 0.1, 0.8 and 3.0 µg TPAH/L). Acute and delayed mortality were observed at embryonic, larval, and juvenile stages with IC50 = 2.2, 0.39, and 0.27 µg TPAH/L, respectively. Exposure to 0.1 µg TPAH/L had no negative effect on growth or survival. However, yolk sac larvae showed significant reduction in the outgrowth (ballooning) of the cardiac ventricle in the absence of other extracardiac morphological defects. Due to this propensity for latent sublethal developmental toxicity, we recommend an effect threshold of 0.1 µg TPAH/L for risk assessment models.

Non-target and suspected-target screening for potentially hazardous chemicals in food contact materials: investigation of paper straws.

A non-target screening strategy was developed for the safety evaluation of potentially hazardous chemicals in paper food contact materials (FCMs). A tentative list of suspect analytes was generated using publicly available FCM substance inventories, the presence of contaminants in paper straws was confirmed by high-resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometry. Data-independent and data-dependent MS and MS/MS results for candidate compounds were processed using a workflow including peak detection by deconvolution, blank subtraction, retention time alignment, formula assignment and fragmentation spectra search against spectral libraries followed by in silico generated spectra annotation. This workflow allowed for the identification of 74 suspect compounds, of which 40 were assigned a high confidence level of detection. A tentative in silico toxicity evaluation for mutagenic and carcinogenic activities was carried out. Using quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models it was found that two of the detected compounds tested positive for mutagenicity and three for carcinogenicity.

Effects of seafood consumption on mercury exposure in Norwegian pregnant women: A randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Seafood provides nutrients that are important for optimal development of the unborn child. However, seafood is also a source of contaminants including mercury (Hg) and methylmercury (MeHg) that may have adverse effects on neurodevelopment of the fetus. Humans are predominantly exposed to MeHg through seafood consumption, however, levels of MeHg vary considerably between species. OBJECTIVES: Investigate, in a randomized controlled trial (RCT) during pregnancy, if an increased intake of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), a fish species with relatively low levels of MeHg contamination, influences total hair Hg (THHg) concentrations in humans. METHODS: Pregnant women (n = 137) were enrolled in the RCT "Mommy's Food" (2016-2017), which was designed to increase iodine status. Participants were randomly assigned to intervention (400 g of cod fillets per week) or control (continued habitual diet) groups for 16 weeks (gestational week 20-36). THHg concentrations were measured at baseline and post-intervention using thermal decomposition, amalgamation, and atomic absorption spectrophotometry (US EPA method 7473). The trial is registered in ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02610959. RESULTS: Post-intervention, the intervention group had median (inter-quartile range) THHg concentrations of 554 (392-805) µg/kg, and the control group 485 (341-740) µg/kg (p = 0.186). When adjusting for baseline THHg concentrations, there was a significant difference between the groups in those participants with baseline THHg concentrations below 534 µg/kg. Post-intervention, 8% of the study population exceeded the US EPA reference dose in hair (1,000 µg/kg) (intervention group: n = 6, control group: n = 4). CONCLUSION: THHg concentrations were generally low in both study groups of pregnant women, despite the relatively high seafood intake. While the intervention with 400 g of cod per week slightly increased THHg concentrations, it did not lead to an increase in number of subjects exceeding the US EPA reference dose; a dose level at which no adverse effects are expected to occur over a period of lifetime exposure.

Tolerance and dose-response assessment of subchronic dietary ethoxyquin exposure in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.).

Ethoxyquin (EQ; 6-Ethoxy-2,2,4-trimethyl-1,2-dihydroquinoline) has been used as an antioxidant in feed components for pets, livestock and aquaculture. However, possible risks of EQ used in aquafeed for fish health have not yet been characterized. The present study investigated the toxicity and dose-response of subchronic dietary EQ exposure at doses ranging from 41 to 9666 mg EQ/kg feed in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Feed at concentrations higher than 1173 mg EQ/kg were rejected by the fish, resulting in reduced feed intake and growth performance. No mortality was observed in fish exposed to any of the doses. A multi-omic screening of metabolome and proteome in salmon liver indicated an effect of dietary EQ on bioenergetics pathways and hepatic redox homeostasis in fish fed concentrations above 119 mg EQ/kg feed. Increased energy expenditure associated with an upregulation of hepatic fatty acid ß-oxidation and induction and carbohydrate catabolic pathways resulted in a dose-dependent depletion of intracytoplasmic lipid vacuoles in liver histological sections, decreasing whole body lipid levels and altered purine/pyrimidine metabolism. Increased GSH and TBARS in the liver indicated a state of oxidative stress, which was associated with activation of the NRF2-mediated oxidative stress response and glutathione-mediated detoxification processes. However, no oxidative DNA damage was observed. As manifestation of altered energy metabolism, the depletion of liver intracytoplasmic lipid vacuoles was considered the critical endpoint for benchmark dose assessment, and a BMDL10 of 243 mg EQ/kg feed was derived as a safe upper limit of EQ exposure in Atlantic salmon.

Species-Specific Discrimination of Insect Meals for Aquafeeds by Direct Comparison of Tandem Mass Spectra.

Insect protein has the potential to become a sustainable feed ingredient for the rapidly growing aquaculture industry. In the European Union, insect derived protein is placed under the same legislation as processed animal proteins (PAP). It is therefore of interest to develop methods for regulatory use, which unambiguously identify the species origin of insect-based ingredients. We performed (i) total protein quantification of insect samples using the traditional nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor of 6.25 and the sum of anhydrous amino acids, (ii) quantitative amino acid profiling and (iii) high-throughput tandem mass spectrometry to describe and differentiate 18 different commercial-grade insect meal samples derived from Hermetia illucens (8), Tenebrio molitor (5), Alphitobius diaperinus (3) and Acheta domesticus (2). In addition, we investigated and compared different protein extraction and digestion protocols for proteomic analysis. We found that irrespective of sample preparation, shotgun proteomics in combination with direct spectral comparison were able to differentiate insect meal according to their taxonomic classification. The insect specific spectral libraries created in the present work can in future be used to develop more sensitive targeted methods of insect PAP identification and quantification in commercial feed mixtures.

Identification and evaluation of potentially mutagenic and carcinogenic food contaminants.

Heat processing of food gives rise to a plethora of chemical compounds whose toxicological effects are largely unknown. Due to a general lack of experimental toxicological data, assessing the risks associated with the consumption of these substances remains a challenge. Computer models that allow for an in silico prediction of physicochemical and toxicological characteristics, may be able to fill current data gaps and facilitate the risk assessment of toxicologically uncharacterised chemicals, their transformation products and their biological metabolites. The overall aims of the present project were for the fellow: (i) to get acquainted with the application of computational toxicological analyses tools in risk assessment based on results and experiences from previous research performed at the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR); and (ii) to apply the newly gained skills on historic and novel data using updated and additional in silico tools. The project contributed to the continuous further education of the fellow in the use of computational toxicology tools, corroborated findings related to the safety of heat-induced contaminants and laid the foundations for future collaborations between the fellow's home institution, the Institute of Marine Research (IMR) in Norway, and the BfR in Germany.

Transepithelial transfer of phenanthrene, but not of benzo[a]pyrene, is inhibited by fatty acids in the proximal intestine of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

The inclusion of vegetable oils in aquafeeds introduces contaminating polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in salmonids. Since lipophilic PAHs solubilize in micelles composed of lipids, bile salts and fatty acids, dietary lipid composition can alter intestinal transepithelial PAH transfer. We studied the uptake of two PAHs, viz. benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and phenanthrene (PHE), in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) intestine. We also investigated the effects of two fatty acids, viz. fish oil-derived eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and vegetable oil-derived oleic acid (18:1n-9) on intestinal uptake. Radiolabeled PAHs were solubilized in micelles composed of tritiated EPA and oleic acid, respectively, and administrated to intestinal segments mounted in Ussing chambers. In the absence of micelles, PHE accumulation was two times higher than BaP in the mucosal and serosal layers of proximal and distal intestine. Administration of PHE in micelles composed of oleic acid resulted in a 50% lower accumulation of PHE in the mucosal layers of the proximal intestine compared to EPA-composed micelles. Accumulation of EPA and oleic acid in the proximal intestinal mucosa correlated negatively with the transepithelial transfer of these fatty acids across the proximal intestinal epithelium. Transepithelial PHE transfer across the proximal intestine was reduced by 30% in co-exposure with EPA-composed micelles compared to 80% with oleic acid micelles. BaP was not transferred across the intestine. We conclude that the lipid composition of an aquafeed is an important determinant of PAH bioavailability. Therefore, lipid composition should be an important consideration in choosing vegetable oils as alternatives for fish oil in aquafeeds.

Subchronic dietary exposure to ethoxyquin dimer induces microvesicular steatosis in male BALB/c mice.

The use of the synthetic antioxidant ethoxyquin (6-ethoxy-2,2,4-trimethyl-1,2-dihydroquinoline; EQ) in animal feed results in the presence of EQ residues and metabolites, including the EQ dimer (1,8'-bi(6-ethoxy-2,2,4-trimethyl-1,2-dihydroquinoline); EQDM) in animal food products. To investigate the toxicity and dose-response of dietary exposure to EQDM, male BALB/c mice were exposed to one of six dietary doses of EQDM, ranging from 0.015 to 518 mg/kg body weight/day for 90 days. Doses above 10 mg/kg body weight/day affected whole body lipid metabolism resulting in increased liver weights and decreased adipose tissue mass. Metabolomic screening of livers revealed alterations indicating incomplete fatty acid ß-oxidation and hepatic oxidative stress. Histopathological evaluation and biochemical analyses of the liver confirmed the development of microvesicular steatosis and activation of the glutathione system. Hepatic protein profiling and pathway analyses suggested that EQDM-induced responses are mediated through activation of CAR/PXR nuclear receptors and induction of a NRF2-mediated oxidative stress response. Based on the development of microvesicular steatosis as the critical endpoint, a Reference Point for dietary EQDM exposure was established at 1.1 mg/kg body weight/day (BMDL10) from benchmark dose modelling. Applying an uncertainty factor of 200, an Acceptable Daily Intake of 0.006 mg EQDM/kg body weight was proposed.

Factors influencing risk assessments of brominated flame-retardants; evidence based on seafood from the North East Atlantic Ocean.

Brominated flame-retardants (BFRs) such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) are considered hazardous to human health. Due to their persistence, they are still present in the environment and in biota and seafood is major contributor of BFRs to human exposure. Here, we used data from >9700 samples of wild and farmed fish, fish feed and fish feed ingredients collected from the North Atlantic between 2006 and 2016 aiming to investigate factors influencing the risk assessments of BFRs. Due to most representative number of analyses, PBDEs were the main focus of investigation. Mean ∑PBDE in fillet samples ranged from below quantification in Atlantic cod fillet to 2.0 µg kg-1 in Atlantic halibut. The main congener contributing to the ∑PBDE in all species was BDE 47. Factors affecting the level of BFR in seafood were multifaceted, and the levels were within species mainly determined by fish age, geographical origin and time of sampling. BDE 47, 99, 153 and HBCD were selected for margin of exposure (MOE) evaluation. When other sources of BFR than seafood were excluded, our risk assessment showed low risk at the current dietary intake of seafood. However, the dietary intake of BDE 99 may be of concern for toddlers when all sources are considered. The choice of fish species, dietary studies, choice of statistics, as well as exposure from other sources than seafood, were all factors that influenced the final MOE of BFRs. We propose the use of regression on order statistics as a tool for risk assessment, to illustrate means and spreads in large surveillance datasets to avoid the issue of measurements below the limit of quantification. A harmonized, updated evaluation of the risk associated with exposure to BFRs from diet, air and dust is warranted, where the fish species most commonly consumed also is taken into consideration.

Uptake of benzo[a]pyrene, but not of phenanthrene, is inhibited by fatty acids in intestinal brush border membrane vesicles of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

Partial replacement of fish ingredients with vegetable ingredients has elevated levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Atlantic salmon reared on these feeds. PAH uptake in the intestinal tract is postulated to occur in association with lipid absorption and could well be affected by fatty acid composition. We therefore investigated the effects of a fish oil and vegetable oil fatty acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5n-3) and oleic acid (18:1n-9) respectively, on the uptake of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and phenanthrene (PHE) across the intestinal brush border membrane in the salmonid species rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). BaP and PHE were solubilized in mixed micelles composed of either EPA or oleic acid and administrated to isolated brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) derived from the pyloric caeca, proximal intestine and distal intestine. In the absence of free fatty acids (FFA) trans-membrane uptake of BaP and PHE was 2-7 times lower than the fraction associated to or in the membrane. In the presence of FFA, trans-membrane BaP uptake had decreased by 80 and 40% at the highest EPA and oleic acid concentration, respectively, whereas PHE uptake was virtually unaffected. In the presence of BaP, but not PHE, trans-membrane EPA uptake in BBMV had decreased. This study obtained evidence for PAH-dependent interactions with FFA uptake. We conclude that intestinal BaP uptake is reduced by luminal FFA contents whereas PHE uptake is not. A large fraction of the administrated BaP and PHE remains associated with the cellular membrane of enterocytes and may interfere with uptake of nutrients.

The effect of dietary lipid composition on the intestinal uptake and tissue distribution of benzo[a]pyrene and phenanthrene in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).

Uptake of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) across the intestine is suggested to occur in association with dietary lipids. Partial replacement of fish ingredients by vegetable ingredients in aquafeeds has led to increased levels of PAHs in marine farmed fish. We therefore investigated, intestinal uptake, tissue distribution and PAH metabolism after a single dose of (14)C-benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) or (14)C-phenanthrene (PHE) given to Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) acclimatized to a fish oil or vegetable oil based diet. Both BaP and PHE were absorbed along the intestine. Fish oil based feed increased BaP concentration in the pyloric caeca and that of PHE in the proximal intestine. In contrast, vegetable oil increased BaP concentrations in the distal intestine. Extraction of whole body autoradiograms removed PHE-associated radiolabeling almost completely from the intestinal mucosa, but not BaP-associated radiolabeling, indicating the presence of BaP metabolites bound to cellular macromolecules. This observation correlates with the increased cyp1a expression in the proximal intestine, distal intestine and liver in the BaP exposed group. Furthermore, BaP-induced cyp1a expression was higher in the distal intestine of salmon fed fish oil compared to the vegetable oil fed group. PHE had no significant effect on cyp1a expression in any of these tissues. We conclude that dietary lipid composition affects intestinal PAH uptake. Fish oil based feed increased intestinal PAH concentrations probably due to an enhanced solubility in micelles composed of fish oil fatty acids. Increased BaP accumulation in the distal intestine of vegetable oil fed fish seems to be associated with a reduced Cyp1a-mediated BaP metabolism.

Marine fatty acids aggravate hepatotoxicity of α-HBCD in juvenile female BALB/c mice.

Oily fish, a source of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC n-3 PUFAs), may contain persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including α-hexabromocyclododecane (α-HBCD). In experimental studies, marine LC n-3 PUFAs ameliorate fatty liver development while HBCD exposure was found to cause liver fatty acid (FA) changes. The present study investigated interactions of FAs and α-HBCD in juvenile female BALB/c mice using a factorial design. Mice (n = 48) were exposed for 28 days to a low (100 µg*kg body weight (BW)-1*day-1) or high dose (100 mg*kg BW-1*day-1) of α-HBCD in diets with or without LC n-3 PUFAs. High dose α-HBCD affected whole body lipid metabolism leading to changes in body weight and composition, and pathological changes in hepatic histology, which surprisingly were aggravated by dietary LC n-3 PUFAs. Hepatic FA profiling and gene expression analysis indicated that the dietary modulation of the hepatotoxic response to the high dose of α-HBCD was associated with differential effects on FA ß-oxidation. Our results suggest that in a juvenile mouse model, marine FAs accentuate hepatotoxic effects of high dose α-HBCD. This highlights that the background diet is a critical variable in the risk assessment of POPs and warrants further investigation of dietary mediated toxicity of food contaminants.

Ontogeny of redox regulation in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) larvae.

The reduction potential of a cell is related to its fate. Proliferating cells are more reduced than those that are differentiating, whereas apoptotic cells are generally the most oxidized. Glutathione is considered the most important cellular redox buffer and the average reduction potential (Eh) of a cell or organism can be calculated from the concentrations of glutathione (GSH) and glutathione disulfide (GSSG). In this study, triplicate groups of cod larvae at various stages of development (3 to 63 days post-hatch; dph) were sampled for analyses of GSSG/2GSH concentrations, together with activities of antioxidant enzymes and expression of genes encoding proteins involved in redox metabolism. The concentration of total GSH (GSH+GSSG) increased from 610 ± 100 to 1260 ± 150 µmol/kg between 7 and 14 dph and was then constant until 49 dph, after which it decreased to 810 ± 100 µmol/kg by 63 dph. The 14- to 49-dph period, when total GSH concentrations were stable, coincides with the proposed period of metamorphosis in cod larvae. The concentration of GSSG comprised approximately 1% of the total GSH concentration and was stable throughout the sampling series. This resulted in a decreasing Eh from -239 ± 1 to -262 ± 7 mV between 7 and 14 dph, after which it remained constant until 63 dph. The changes in GSH and Eh were accompanied by changes in the expression of several genes involved in redox balance and signaling, as well as changes in activities of antioxidant enzymes, with the most dynamic responses occurring in the early phase of cod larval development. It is hypothesized that metamorphosis in cod larvae starts with the onset of mosaic hyperplasia in the skeletal muscle at approximately 20 dph (6.8mm standard length (SL)) and ends with differentiation of the stomach and disappearance of the larval finfold at 40 to 50 dph (10-15 mm SL). Thus, metamorphosis in cod larvae seems to coincide with high and stable total concentrations of GSH.