Phosphorylation by the stress-activated MAPK Slt2 down-regulates the yeast TOR complex 2.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae target of rapamycin (TOR) complex 2 (TORC2) is an essential regulator of plasma membrane lipid and protein homeostasis. How TORC2 activity is modulated in response to changes in the status of the cell envelope is unclear. Here we document that TORC2 subunit Avo2 is a direct target of Slt2, the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) of the cell wall integrity pathway. Activation of Slt2 by overexpression of a constitutively active allele of an upstream Slt2 activator (Pkc1) or by auxin-induced degradation of a negative Slt2 regulator (Sln1) caused hyperphosphorylation of Avo2 at its MAPK phosphoacceptor sites in a Slt2-dependent manner and diminished TORC2-mediated phosphorylation of its major downstream effector, protein kinase Ypk1. Deletion of Avo2 or expression of a phosphomimetic Avo2 allele rendered cells sensitive to two stresses (myriocin treatment and elevated exogenous acetic acid) that the cell requires Ypk1 activation by TORC2 to survive. Thus, Avo2 is necessary for optimal TORC2 activity, and Slt2-mediated phosphorylation of Avo2 down-regulates TORC2 signaling. Compared with wild-type Avo2, phosphomimetic Avo2 shows significant displacement from the plasma membrane, suggesting that Slt2 inhibits TORC2 by promoting Avo2 dissociation. Our findings are the first demonstration that TORC2 function is regulated by MAPK-mediated phosphorylation.

Protein kinase Ypk1 phosphorylates regulatory proteins Orm1 and Orm2 to control sphingolipid homeostasis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

The Orm family proteins are conserved integral membrane proteins of the endoplasmic reticulum that are key homeostatic regulators of sphingolipid biosynthesis. Orm proteins bind to and inhibit serine:palmitoyl-coenzyme A transferase, the first enzyme in sphingolipid biosynthesis. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Orm1 and Orm2 are inactivated by phosphorylation in response to compromised sphingolipid synthesis (e.g., upon addition of inhibitor myriocin), thereby restoring sphingolipid production. We show here that protein kinase Ypk1, one of an essential pair of protein kinases, is responsible for this regulatory modification. Myriocin-induced hyperphosphorylation of Orm1 and Orm2 does not occur in ypk1 cells, and immunopurified Ypk1 phosphorylates Orm1 and Orm2 robustly in vitro exclusively on three residues that are known myriocin-induced sites. Furthermore, the temperature-sensitive growth of ypk1(ts) ypk2 cells is substantially ameliorated by deletion of ORM genes, confirming that a primary physiological role of Ypk1-mediated phosphorylation is to negatively regulate Orm function. Ypk1 immunoprecipitated from myriocin-treated cells displays a higher specific activity for Orm phosphorylation than Ypk1 from untreated cells. To identify the mechanism underlying Ypk1 activation, we systematically tested several candidate factors and found that the target of rapamycin complex 2 (TORC2) kinase plays a key role. In agreement with prior evidence that a TORC2-dependent site in Ypk1(T662) is necessary for cells to exhibit a wild-type level of myriocin resistance, a Ypk1(T662A) mutant displays only weak Orm phosphorylation in vivo and only weak activation in vitro in response to sphingolipid depletion. Additionally, sphingolipid depletion increases phosphorylation of Ypk1 at T662. Thus, Ypk1 is both a sensor and effector of sphingolipid level, and reduction in sphingolipids stimulates Ypk1, at least in part, via TORC2-dependent phosphorylation.

A protein kinase network regulates the function of aminophospholipid flippases.

Limited exposure of aminophospholipids on the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane is a fundamental feature of eukaryotic cells and is maintained by the action of inward-directed P-type ATPases ("flippases"). Yeast S. cerevisiae has five flippases (Dnf1, Dnf2, Dnf3, Drs2, and Neo1), but their regulation is poorly understood. Two paralogous plasma membrane-associated protein kinases, Pkh1 and Pkh2 (orthologs of mammalian PDK1), are required for viability of S. cerevisiae cells because they activate several essential downstream protein kinases by phosphorylating a critical Thr in their activation loops. Two such targets are related protein kinases Ypk1 and Ypk2 (orthologs of mammalian SGK1), which have been implicated in multiple processes, including endocytosis and coupling of membrane expansion to cell wall remodeling, but the downstream effector(s) of these kinases have been elusive. Here we show that a physiologically relevant substrate of Ypk1 is another protein kinase, Fpk1, a known flippase activator. We show that Ypk1 phosphorylates and thereby down-regulates Fpk1, and further that a complex sphingolipid counteracts the down-regulation of Fpk1 by Ypk1. Our findings delineate a unique regulatory mechanism for imposing a balance between sphingolipid content and aminophospholipid asymmetry in eukaryotic plasma membranes.

Phosphorylation of mRNA-Binding Proteins Puf1 and Puf2 by TORC2-Activated Protein Kinase Ypk1 Alleviates Their Repressive Effects.

Members of the Puf family of RNA-binding proteins typically associate via their Pumilio homology domain with specific short motifs in the 3'-UTR of an mRNA and thereby influence the stability, localization and/or efficiency of translation of the bound transcript. In our prior unbiased proteome-wide screen for targets of the TORC2-stimulated protein kinase Ypk1, we identified the paralogs Puf1/Jsn1 and Puf2 as high-confidence substrates. Earlier work by others had demonstrated that Puf1 and Puf2 exhibit a marked preference for interaction with mRNAs encoding plasma membrane-associated proteins, consistent with our previous studies documenting that a primary physiological role of TORC2-Ypk1 signaling is maintenance of plasma membrane homeostasis. Here, we show, first, that both Puf1 and Puf2 are authentic Ypk1 substrates both in vitro and in vivo. Fluorescently tagged Puf1 localizes constitutively in cortical puncta closely apposed to the plasma membrane, whereas Puf2 does so in the absence of its Ypk1 phosphorylation, but is dispersed in the cytosol when phosphorylated. We further demonstrate that Ypk1-mediated phosphorylation of Puf1 and Puf2 upregulates production of the protein products of the transcripts to which they bind, with a concomitant increase in the level of the cognate mRNAs. Thus, Ypk1 phosphorylation relieves Puf1- and Puf2-mediated post-transcriptional repression mainly by counteracting their negative effect on transcript stability. Using a heterologous protein-RNA tethering and fluorescent protein reporter assay, the consequence of Ypk1 phosphorylation in vivo was recapitulated for full-length Puf1 and even for N-terminal fragments (residues 1-340 and 143-295) corresponding to the region upstream of its dimerization domain (an RNA-recognition motif fold) encompassing its two Ypk1 phosphorylation sites (both also conserved in Puf2). This latter result suggests that alleviation of Puf1-imposed transcript destabilization does not obligatorily require dissociation of Ypk1-phosphorylated Puf1 from a transcript. Our findings add new insight about how the TORC2-Ypk1 signaling axis regulates the content of plasma membrane-associated proteins to promote maintenance of the integrity of the cell envelope.

TORC2-Dependent Ypk1-Mediated Phosphorylation of Lam2/Ltc4 Disrupts Its Association with the ß-Propeller Protein Laf1 at Endoplasmic Reticulum-Plasma Membrane Contact Sites in the Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Membrane-tethered sterol-binding Lam/Ltc proteins localize at junctions between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane and other organelles. Two of the six family members-Lam2/Ltc4 (initially Ysp2) and paralog Lam4/Ltc3-localize to ER-plasma membrane (PM) contact sites (CSs) and mediate retrograde ergosterol transport from the PM to the ER. Our prior work demonstrated that Lam2 and Lam4 are substrates of TORC2-regulated protein kinase Ypk1, that Ypk1-mediated phosphorylation inhibits their function in retrograde sterol transport, and that PM sterol retention bolsters cell survival under stressful conditions. At ER-PM CSs, Lam2 and Lam4 associate with Laf1/Ymr102c and Dgr2/Ykl121w (paralogous WD40 repeat-containing proteins) that reportedly bind sterol. Using fluorescent tags, we found that Lam2 and Lam4 remain at ER-PM CSs when Laf1 and Dgr2 are absent, whereas neither Laf1 nor Dgr2 remain at ER-PM CSs when Lam2 and Lam4 are absent. Loss of Laf1 (but not Dgr2) impedes retrograde ergosterol transport, and a laf1∆ mutation does not exacerbate the transport defect of lam2∆ lam4∆ cells, indicating a shared function. Lam2 and Lam4 bind Laf1 and Dgr2 in vitro in a pull-down assay, and the PH domain in Lam2 hinders its interaction with Laf1. Lam2 phosphorylated by Ypk1, and Lam2 with phosphomimetic (Glu) replacements at its Ypk1 sites, exhibited a marked reduction in Laf1 binding. Thus, phosphorylation prevents Lam2 interaction with Laf1 at ER-PM CSs, providing a mechanism by which Ypk1 action inhibits retrograde sterol transport.

TOR complex 2-regulated protein kinase Ypk1 controls sterol distribution by inhibiting StARkin domain-containing proteins located at plasma membrane-endoplasmic reticulum contact sites.

In our proteome-wide screen, Ysp2 (also known as Lam2/Ltc4) was identified as a likely physiologically relevant target of the TOR complex 2 (TORC2)-dependent protein kinase Ypk1 in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Ysp2 was subsequently shown to be one of a new family of sterol-binding proteins located at plasma membrane (PM)-endoplasmic reticulum (ER) contact sites. Here we document that Ysp2 and its paralogue Lam4/Ltc3 are authentic Ypk1 substrates in vivo and show using genetic and biochemical criteria that Ypk1-mediated phosphorylation inhibits the ability of these proteins to promote retrograde transport of sterols from the PM to the ER. Furthermore, we provide evidence that a change in PM sterol homeostasis promotes cell survival under membrane-perturbing conditions known to activate TORC2-Ypk1 signaling. These observations define the underlying molecular basis of a new regulatory mechanism for cellular response to plasma membrane stress.

Pkh1 and Pkh2 differentially phosphorylate and activate Ypk1 and Ykr2 and define protein kinase modules required for maintenance of cell wall integrity.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae Pkh1 and Pkh2 are functionally redundant homologs of mammalian protein kinase, phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase-1. They activate two closely related, functionally redundant enzymes, Ypk1 and Ykr2 (homologs of mammalian protein kinase, serum- and glucocorticoid-inducible protein kinase). We found that Ypk1 has a more prominent role than Ykr2 in mediating their shared essential function. Considerable evidence demonstrated that Pkh1 preferentially activates Ypk1, whereas Pkh2 preferentially activates Ykr2. Loss of Pkh1 (but not Pkh2) reduced Ypk1 activity; conversely, Pkh1 overexpression increased Ypk1 activity more than Pkh2 overexpression. Loss of Pkh2 reduced Ykr2 activity; correspondingly, Pkh2 overexpression increased Ykr2 activity more than Pkh1 overexpression. When overexpressed, a catalytically active C-terminal fragment (kinase domain) of Ypk1 was growth inhibitory; loss of Pkh1 (but not Pkh2) alleviated toxicity. Loss of Pkh2 (but not Pkh1) exacerbated the slow growth phenotype of a ypk1Delta strain. This Pkh1-Ypk1 and Pkh2-Ykr2 dichotomy is not absolute because all double mutants (pkh1Delta ypk1Delta, pkh2Delta ypk1Delta, pkh1Delta ykr2Delta, and pkh2Delta ykr2Delta) were viable. Compartmentation contributes to selectivity because Pkh1 and Ypk1 were located exclusively in the cytosol, whereas Pkh2 and Ykr2 entered the nucleus. At restrictive temperature, ypk1-1(ts) ykr2Delta cells lysed rapidly, but not in medium containing osmotic support. Dosage and extragenic suppressors were selected. Overexpression of Exg1 (major exoglucanase), or loss of Kex2 (endoprotease involved in Exg1 processing), rescued growth at high temperature. Viability was also maintained by PKC1 overexpression or an activated allele of the downstream protein kinase (BCK1-20). Conversely, absence of Mpk1 (distal mitogen-activated protein kinase of the PKC1 pathway) was lethal in ypk1-1(ts) ykr2Delta cells. Thus, Pkh1-Ypk1 and Pkh2-Ykr2 function in a novel pathway for cell wall integrity that acts in parallel with the Pkc1-dependent pathway.

The Stress-Sensing TORC2 Complex Activates Yeast AGC-Family Protein Kinase Ypk1 at Multiple Novel Sites.

Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) target of rapamycin (TOR) complex 2 (TORC2) is a multi-subunit plasma membrane-associated protein kinase and vital growth regulator. Its essential functions are exerted via phosphorylation and stimulation of downstream protein kinase Ypk1 (and its paralog Ypk2). Ypk1 phosphorylates multiple substrates to regulate plasma membrane lipid and protein composition. Ypk1 function requires phosphorylation of Thr504 in its activation loop by eisosome-associated Pkh1 (and its paralog Pkh2). For cell survival under certain stresses, however, Ypk1 activity requires further stimulation by TORC2-mediated phosphorylation at C-terminal sites, dubbed the "turn" (Ser644) and "hydrophobic" (Thr662) motifs. Here we show that four additional C-terminal sites are phosphorylated in a TORC2-dependent manner, collectively defining a minimal consensus. We found that the newly identified sites are as important for Ypk1 activity, stability, and biological function as Ser644 and Thr662. Ala substitutions at the four new sites abrogated the ability of Ypk1 to rescue the phenotypes of Ypk1 deficiency, whereas Glu substitutions had no ill effect. Combining the Ala substitutions with an N-terminal mutation (D242A), which has been demonstrated to bypass the need for TORC2-mediated phosphorylation, restored the ability to complement a Ypk1-deficient cell. These findings provide new insights about the molecular basis for TORC2-dependent activation of Ypk1.

The TORC2-Dependent Signaling Network in the Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

To grow, eukaryotic cells must expand by inserting glycerolipids, sphingolipids, sterols, and proteins into their plasma membrane, and maintain the proper levels and bilayer distribution. A fungal cell must coordinate growth with enlargement of its cell wall. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a plasma membrane-localized protein kinase complex, Target of Rapamicin (TOR) complex-2 (TORC2) (mammalian ortholog is mTORC2), serves as a sensor and masterregulator of these plasma membrane- and cell wall-associated events by directly phosphorylating and thereby stimulating the activity of two types of effector protein kinases: Ypk1 (mammalian ortholog is SGK1), along with a paralog (Ypk2); and, Pkc1 (mammalian ortholog is PKN2/PRK2). Ypk1 is a central regulator of pathways and processes required for plasma membrane lipid and protein homeostasis, and requires phosphorylation on its T-loop by eisosome-associated protein kinase Pkh1 (mammalian ortholog is PDK1) and a paralog (Pkh2). For cell survival under various stresses, Ypk1 function requires TORC2-mediated phosphorylation at multiple sites near its C terminus. Pkc1 controls diverse processes, especially cell wall synthesis and integrity. Pkc1 is also regulated by Pkh1- and TORC2-dependent phosphorylation, but, in addition, by interaction with Rho1-GTP and lipids phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) and diacylglycerol (DAG). We also describe here what is currently known about the downstream substrates modulated by Ypk1-mediated and Pkc1-mediated phosphorylation.

TOR Complex 2-Regulated Protein Kinase Fpk1 Stimulates Endocytosis via Inhibition of Ark1/Prk1-Related Protein Kinase Akl1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Depending on the stress, plasma membrane alterations activate or inhibit yeast target of rapamycin (TOR) complex 2, which, in turn, upregulates or downregulates the activity of its essential downstream effector, protein kinase Ypk1. Through phosphorylation of multiple substrates, Ypk1 controls many processes that restore homeostasis. One such substrate is protein kinase Fpk1, which is negatively regulated by Ypk1. Fpk1 phosphorylates and stimulates flippases that translocate aminoglycerophospholipids from the outer to the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane. Fpk1 has additional roles, but other substrates were uncharacterized. We show that Fpk1 phosphorylates and inhibits protein kinase Akl1, related to protein kinases Ark1 and Prk1, which modulate the dynamics of actin patch-mediated endocytosis. Akl1 has two Fpk1 phosphorylation sites (Ark1 and Prk1 have none) and is hypophosphorylated when Fpk1 is absent. Conversely, under conditions that inactivate TORC2-Ypk1 signaling, which alleviates Fpk1 inhibition, Akl1 is hyperphosphorylated. Monitoring phosphorylation of known Akl1 substrates (Sla1 and Ent2) confirmed that Akl1 is hyperactive when not phosphorylated by Fpk1. Fpk1-mediated negative regulation of Akl1 enhances endocytosis, because an Akl1 mutant immune to Fpk1 phosphorylation causes faster dissociation of Sla1 from actin patches, confers elevated resistance to doxorubicin (a toxic compound whose entry requires endocytosis), and impedes Lucifer yellow uptake (a marker of fluid phase endocytosis). Thus, TORC2-Ypk1, by regulating Fpk1-mediated phosphorylation of Akl1, adjusts the rate of endocytosis.

Reconstitution of the mammalian PI3K/PTEN/Akt pathway in yeast.

The mammalian signalling pathway involving class I PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase), PTEN (phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphatase) and PKB (protein kinase B)/c-Akt has roles in multiple processes, including cell proliferation and apoptosis. To facilitate novel approaches for genetic, molecular and pharmacological analyses of these proteins, we have reconstituted this signalling pathway by heterologous expression in the unicellular eukaryote, Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast). High-level expression of the p110 catalytic subunit of mammalian PI3K dramatically inhibits yeast cell growth. This effect depends on PI3K kinase activity and is reversed partially by a PI3K inhibitor (LY294002) and reversed fully by co-expression of catalytically active PTEN (but not its purported yeast orthologue, Tep1). Growth arrest by PI3K correlates with loss of PIP2 (phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate) and its conversion into PIP3 (phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate). PIP2 depletion causes severe rearrangements of actin and septin architecture, defects in secretion and endocytosis, and activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase, Slt2. In yeast producing PIP3, PKB/c-Akt localizes to the plasma membrane and its phosphorylation is enhanced. Phospho-specific antibodies show that both active and kinase-dead PKB/c-Akt are phosphorylated at Thr308 and Ser473. Thr308 phosphorylation, but not Ser473 phosphorylation, requires the yeast orthologues of mammalian PDK1 (3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase-1): Pkh1 and Pkh2. Elimination of yeast Tor1 and Tor2 function, or of the related kinases (Tel1, Mec1 and Tra1), did not block Ser473 phosphorylation, implicating another kinase(s). Reconstruction of the PI3K/PTEN/Akt pathway in yeast permits incisive study of these enzymes and analysis of their functional interactions in a simplified context, establishes a new tool to screen for novel agonists and antagonists and provides a method to deplete PIP2 uniquely in the yeast cell.

Septin-Associated Protein Kinases in the Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Septins are a family of eukaryotic GTP-binding proteins that associate into linear rods, which, in turn, polymerize end-on-end into filaments, and further assemble into other, more elaborate super-structures at discrete subcellular locations. Hence, septin-based ensembles are considered elements of the cytoskeleton. One function of these structures that has been well-documented in studies conducted in budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is to serve as a scaffold that recruits regulatory proteins, which dictate the spatial and temporal control of certain aspects of the cell division cycle. In particular, septin-associated protein kinases couple cell cycle progression with cellular morphogenesis. Thus, septin-containing structures serve as signaling platforms that integrate a multitude of signals and coordinate key downstream networks required for cell cycle passage. This review summarizes what we currently understand about how the action of septin-associated protein kinases and their substrates control information flow to drive the cell cycle into and out of mitosis, to regulate bud growth, and especially to direct timely and efficient execution of cytokinesis and cell abscission. Thus, septin structures represent a regulatory node at the intersection of many signaling pathways. In addition, and importantly, the activities of certain septin-associated protein kinases also regulate the state of organization of the septins themselves, creating a complex feedback loop.

Down-regulation of TORC2-Ypk1 signaling promotes MAPK-independent survival under hyperosmotic stress.

In eukaryotes, exposure to hypertonic conditions activates a MAPK (Hog1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and ortholog p38 in human cells). In yeast, intracellular glycerol accumulates to counterbalance the high external osmolarity. To prevent glycerol efflux, Hog1 action impedes the function of the aquaglyceroporin Fps1, in part, by displacing channel co-activators (Rgc1/2). However, Fps1 closes upon hyperosmotic shock even in hog1∆ cells, indicating another mechanism to prevent Fps1-mediated glycerol efflux. In our prior proteome-wide screen, Fps1 was identified as a target of TORC2-dependent protein kinase Ypk1 (Muir et al., 2014). We show here that Fps1 is an authentic Ypk1 substrate and that the open channel state of Fps1 requires phosphorylation by Ypk1. Moreover, hyperosmotic conditions block TORC2-dependent Ypk1-mediated Fps1 phosphorylation, causing channel closure, glycerol accumulation, and enhanced survival under hyperosmotic stress. These events are all Hog1-independent. Our findings define the underlying molecular basis of a new mechanism for responding to hypertonic conditions.

Protein kinase Gin4 negatively regulates flippase function and controls plasma membrane asymmetry.

Plasma membrane function requires distinct leaflet lipid compositions. Two of the P-type ATPases (flippases) in yeast, Dnf1 and Dnf2, translocate aminoglycerophospholipids from the outer to the inner leaflet, stimulated via phosphorylation by cortically localized protein kinase Fpk1. By monitoring Fpk1 activity in vivo, we found that Fpk1 was hyperactive in cells lacking Gin4, a protein kinase previously implicated in septin collar assembly. Gin4 colocalized with Fpk1 at the cortical site of future bud emergence and phosphorylated Fpk1 at multiple sites, which we mapped. As judged by biochemical and phenotypic criteria, a mutant (Fpk1(11A)), in which 11 sites were mutated to Ala, was hyperactive, causing increased inward transport of phosphatidylethanolamine. Thus, Gin4 is a negative regulator of Fpk1 and therefore an indirect negative regulator of flippase function. Moreover, we found that decreasing flippase function rescued the growth deficiency of four different cytokinesis mutants, which suggests that the primary function of Gin4 is highly localized control of membrane lipid asymmetry and is necessary for optimal cytokinesis.

TORC2-dependent protein kinase Ypk1 phosphorylates ceramide synthase to stimulate synthesis of complex sphingolipids.

Plasma membrane lipid composition must be maintained during growth and under environmental insult. In yeast, signaling mediated by TOR Complex 2 (TORC2)-dependent protein kinase Ypk1 controls lipid abundance and distribution in response to membrane stress. Ypk1, among other actions, alleviates negative regulation of L-serine:palmitoyl-CoA acyltransferase, upregulating production of long-chain base precursors to sphingolipids. To explore other roles for TORC2-Ypk1 signaling in membrane homeostasis, we devised a three-tiered genome-wide screen to identify additional Ypk1 substrates, which pinpointed both catalytic subunits of the ceramide synthase complex. Ypk1-dependent phosphorylation of both proteins increased upon either sphingolipid depletion or heat shock and was important for cell survival. Sphingolipidomics, other biochemical measurements and genetic analysis demonstrated that these modifications of ceramide synthase increased its specific activity and stimulated channeling of long-chain base precursors into sphingolipid end-products. Control at this branch point also prevents accumulation of intermediates that could compromise cell growth by stimulating autophagy.

Reciprocal phosphorylation of yeast glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenases in adaptation to distinct types of stress.

Eukaryotic cells have evolved mechanisms for ensuring growth and survival in the face of stress caused by a fluctuating environment. Saccharomyces cerevisiae has two homologous glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenases, Gpd1 and Gpd2, that are required to endure various stresses, including hyperosmotic shock and hypoxia. These enzymes are only partially redundant, and their unique functions were attributed previously to differential transcriptional regulation and localization. We find that Gpd1 and Gpd2 are negatively regulated through phosphorylation by distinct kinases under reciprocal conditions. Gpd2 is phosphorylated by the AMP-activated protein kinase Snf1 to curtail glycerol production when nutrients are limiting. Gpd1, in contrast, is a target of TORC2-dependent kinases Ypk1 and Ypk2. Inactivation of Ypk1 by hyperosmotic shock results in dephosphorylation and activation of Gpd1, accelerating recovery through increased glycerol production. Gpd1 dephosphorylation acts synergistically with its transcriptional upregulation, enabling long-term growth at high osmolarity. Phosphorylation of Gpd1 and Gpd2 by distinct kinases thereby enables rapid adaptation to specific stress conditions. Introduction of phosphorylation motifs targeted by distinct kinases provides a general mechanism for functional specialization of duplicated genes during evolution.

Differential roles of PDK1- and PDK2-phosphorylation sites in the yeast AGC kinases Ypk1, Pkc1 and Sch9.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae Pkh1 and Pkh2 (orthologues of mammalian protein kinase, PDK1) are functionally redundant. These kinases activate three AGC family kinases involved in the maintenance of cell wall integrity: Ypk1 and Ypk2, two closely related, functionally redundant enzymes (orthologues of mammalian protein kinase SGK), and Pkc1 (orthologue of mammalian protein kinase PRK2). Pkh1 and Pkh2 activate Ypk1, Ypk2 and Pkc1 by phosphorylating a Thr in a conserved sequence motif (PDK1 site) within the activation loop of these proteins. A fourth protein kinase involved in growth control and stress response, Sch9 (orthologue of mammalian protein kinase c-Akt/PKB), also carries the conserved activation loop motif. Like other AGC family kinases, Ypk1, Ypk2, Pkc1 and Sch9 also carry a second conserved sequence motif situated in a region C-terminal to the catalytic domain, called the hydrophobic motif (PDK2 site). Currently, there is still controversy surrounding the identity of the enzyme responsible for phosphorylating this second site and the necessity for phosphorylation at this site for in vivo function. Here, genetic and biochemical methods have been used to investigate the physiological consequences of phosphorylation at the PDK1 and PDK2 sites of Ypk1, Pkc1 and Sch9. It was found that phosphorylation at the PDK1 site in the activation loop is indispensable for the essential functions of all three kinases in vivo, whereas phosphorylation at the PDK2 motif plays a non-essential and much more subtle role in modulating the ability of these kinases to regulate the downstream processes in which they participate.