The impact of social support and emotion dysregulation on COVID-19 depressive symptoms.

Introduction: Stress resulting from the global COVID-19 pandemic has been linked to psychological consequences, such as depressive symptoms, for individuals worldwide. Outbreaks and pandemics are known to accentuate stressors or generate new ones owing to health-related worries, reduced mobility, and social activity due to quarantine, and sudden life changes. Although post-lockdown U.S. research findings suggest a greater risk of depression among 18- to 25-year-olds, familiarity with technology and virtual socializing may offer college students some protective effect, warranting research with such groups. Methods: The current study thus explored emotion dysregulation (ED) and perceived social support (PSS) as potential mechanisms for the relationship between COVID-19 stress and depressive symptoms among students at a southern university in the United States. Participants (N = 489) completed a cross-sectional survey assessing their current levels of COVID-19 stress, ED, PSS, and depressive symptoms. Results: Path analysis showed that PSS buffered the effect of ED on depressive symptoms. The results support the explanatory role of ED in the relationship between COVID-19 stress and depressive symptoms. Discussion: The perceived social connection may be an essential factor for psychological outcomes during periods of stress and isolation, particularly for those reporting high ED.

Role of Developmental Timing of Childhood Adversity in Nonsuicidal Self-Injury Persistence or Desistance.

Given the high prevalence of nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI), scientific interest is on the rise, yet its developmental course remains understudied. Factors that may influence NSSI behavior are also unclear, although early research describes it as a maladaptive form of emotion regulation. In a college student sample (N = 507), the current study examines the extent that developmental timing of, and cumulative exposure to, potentially traumatic events (PTEs) accounts for variance in NSSI frequency, duration, and desistance, as well as the role that emotion regulation difficulties (ERD) play. Of 507 participants, 411 endorsed PTE exposure and were categorized into developmental groups based on age of initial PTE exposure, with the hypothesis that initial exposure during early childhood and adolescence may represent particularly sensitive risk periods. Results revealed that cumulative PTE exposure was significantly positively associated with shorter NSSI desistance, whereas ERD were significantly negatively associated with shorter NSSI desistance. However, the interaction between cumulative PTE exposure, when coupled with current ERD significantly moderated (i.e., strengthened) the path between cumulative PTE exposure and NSSI desistance. When examined individually, this interaction was only significant for the early childhood group, suggesting that the effects of PTE exposure on NSSI persistence may vary not only as a function of emotion regulation capacities but also when in the developmental course initial PTE exposure occurs. These findings contribute to our understanding of the role of PTE and timing, as well as ERD, in predicting NSSI behavior, and can inform programs and policies to prevent and curtail self-harm.

Childhood Trauma and PTSD Symptoms: Disentangling the Roles of Emotion Regulation and Distress Tolerance.

Research documents that a history of childhood trauma increases risk for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), greater emotion regulation difficulties (ERD), and reduced distress tolerance (DT). Independent lines of research implicate ERD and DT as transdiagnostic risk factors and link them to PTSD. To elucidate how such mechanisms may influence the etiology, maintenance, and treatment of PTSD, the current study investigates the distinct mediating roles of emotion regulation and DT, exploring which explains a larger indirect effect from childhood trauma to PTSD symptom severity. Participants (N = 385, aged 18-48) who endorsed a history of childhood trauma provided retrospective report of cumulative childhood trauma exposure, and of current ERD, DT, and PTSD symptom severity. Single and dual mediation analyses were used to assess indirect effects through ERD and DT in the relation between cumulative childhood trauma exposure and current PTSD symptom severity. ERD and DT were significantly and inversely related. Higher current self-ratings of PTSD symptom severity were explained by cumulative childhood trauma through ERD (B = 0.93, p < 0.001) and DT (B = 0.50, p < 0.05). The full model explained 36% of the variance in PTSD symptom severity. Current findings provide preliminary evidence of DT and emotion regulation (with specific facets identified) as distinct mechanisms in the development of PTSD. Of clinical relevance, current findings support post-trauma processing theories that contend individuals' recovery requires accepting and learning to modulate trauma-related emotional states. Implications for methods of treatment and prevention are discussed.

Coping with COVID-19: Testing the stress sensitization hypothesis among adults with and without a history of adverse childhood experiences.

Background: Substantial research suggests that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) disrupt neurobiology, impacting regulatory processes (i.e., emotion regulation) that may sensitize individuals to psychopathology in response to later life stressors. Given the known increase in mental health distress related to the current ongoing global pandemic, this study investigated the extent to which COVID-related stress moderates the association between emotion regulation difficulties and psychological symptom ratings among individuals with and without exposure to ACEs. Methods: Participants (N = 315, aged 18-48) provided self-ratings of ACEs, emotion regulation difficulties, COVID-related stress, and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and PTSD. The interaction between emotion regulation difficulties and COVID-related stress on psychological symptoms was examined using path analysis. Multigroup analysis was used to examine the moderating effects of ACEs. Results: For individuals with ACEs, COVID-stress was associated positively with depression and anxiety symptoms when emotion regulation difficulties were low. Higher emotion regulation difficulties were associated with higher symptom ratings and COVID-related stress did not add a significant effect. Goal-setting difficulties, a subscale of emotion regulation difficulties, accounted for the most variance in these associations. Limitations: Cross-sectional design precludes determining causality, retrospective reports may be subject to recall bias, and participant demographics may limit generalizability. Conclusions: The current study provides support for stress sensitization theory and highlights the protective role of emotion regulation in enduring moderate stressors. Significant stressors (e.g., COVID-19), however, may warrant additional skills and supports to mitigate internalizing symptoms, particularly for individuals with a history of ACEs.