Narratives from African American/Black, American Indian/Alaska Native, and Hispanic/Latinx community members in Arizona to enhance COVID-19 vaccine and vaccination uptake.

The state of Arizona has experienced one of the highest novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) positivity test rates in the United States with disproportionally higher case rates and deaths among African-American/Black (AA/B), American Indian/Alaska Native (Native), and Hispanic/Latinx (HLX) individuals. To reduce disparities and promote health equity, researchers from Arizona State University, Mayo Clinic in Arizona, Northern Arizona University, and the University of Arizona formed a partnership with community organizations to conduct state-wide community-engaged research and outreach. This report describes results from 34 virtually-held focus groups and supplemental survey responses conducted with 153 AA/B, HLX, and Native community members across Arizona to understand factors associated with COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and confidence. Focus groups revealed common themes of vaccine hesitancy stemming from past experiences of research abuses (e.g., Tuskegee syphilis experiment) as well as group-specific factors. Across all focus groups, participants strongly recommended the use of brief, narrative vaccination testimonials from local officials, community members, and faith leaders to increase trust in science, vaccine confidence and to promote uptake.

A multisectoral approach to advance health equity in rural northern Arizona: county-level leaders' perspectives on health equity.

BACKGROUND: Multisectoral and public-private partnerships are critical in building the necessary infrastructure, policy, and political will to ameliorate health inequity. A focus on health equity by researchers, practitioners, and decision-makers prioritizes action to address the systematic, avoidable, and unjust differences in health status across population groups sustained over time and generations that are beyond the control of individuals. Health equity requires a collective process in shaping the health and wellbeing of the communities in which we live, learn, work, play, and grow. This paper explores multisectoral leaders' understanding of the social, environmental, and economic conditions that produce and sustain health inequity in northern Arizona, a geographically expansive, largely rural, and culturally diverse region. METHODS: Data are drawn from the Southwest Health Equity Research Collaborative's Regional Health Equity Survey (RHES). The RHES is a community-engaged, cross-sectional online survey comprised of 31 close-ended and 17 open-ended questions. Created to assess cross-sectoral regional and collective capacity to address health inequity and inform multisectoral action for improving community health, the RHES targeted leaders representing five rural northern Arizona counties and 13 sectors. Select open-ended questions were analyzed using an a priori coding scheme and emergent coding with thematic analysis. RESULTS: Although leaders were provided the definition and asked to describe the root causes of inequities, the majority of leaders described social determinants of health (SDoH). When leaders described root causes of health inequity, they articulated systemic factors affecting their communities, describing discrimination and unequal allocation of power and resources. Most leaders described the SDoH by discussing compounding factors of poverty, transportation, housing, and rurality among others, that together exacerbate inequity. Leaders also identified specific strategies to address SDoH and advance health equity in their communities, ranging from providing direct services to activating partnerships across organizations and sectors in advocacy for policy change. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that community leaders in the northern Arizona region acknowledge the importance of multisectoral collaborations in improving health equity for the populations that they serve. However, a common understanding of health equity remains to be widely established, which is essential for conducting effective multisectoral work to advance health equity.

Community health worker intervention improves early childhood vaccination rates: results from a propensity-score matching evaluation.

BACKGROUND: Arizona's Health Start Program is a statewide community health worker (CHW) maternal and child health home visiting intervention. The objective of this study was to test if participation in Health Start during 2006-2016 improved early childhood vaccination completion rates. METHODS: This retrospective study used 11 years of administrative, birth certificate, and immunization records. Propensity score matching was used to identify control groups, based on demographic, socioeconomic, and geographic characteristics. Results are reported by historically disadvantaged subgroups and/or with a history of low vaccine uptake, including Hispanic/Latinx and American Indian children, and children of low socioeconomic status and from rural areas, children with teen mothers and first-born children. The average treatment-on-the-treated (ATT) effect estimated the impact of Health Start on timely completion of seven early childhood vaccine series: diphtheria/tetanus toxoids and acellular/whole-cell pertussis (DTaP/DTP), Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), hepatitis B (Hep. B), measles-mumps-rubella (MMR), pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13), poliovirus, and varicella. RESULTS: Vaccination completion rates (by age five) were 5.0% points higher for Health Start children as a group, and on average 5.0% points higher for several subgroups of mothers: women from rural border counties (ATT 5.8), Hispanic/Latinx women (ATT 4.8), American Indian women (ATT 4.8), women with less than high school education (ATT 5.0), teen mothers (ATT 6.1), and primipara women (ATT 4.5), compared to matched control groups (p-value ≤ 0.05). Time-to-event analyses show Health Start children complete vaccination sooner, with a hazard rate for full vaccination 13% higher than their matches. CONCLUSION: A state-operated home visiting intervention with CHWs as the primary interventionist can effectively promote early childhood vaccine completion, which may reduce the incidence of preventable diseases and subsequently improve children's health. Effects of CHW interventions on vaccination uptake is particularly relevant given the rise in vaccine-preventable diseases in the US and globally. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Approved by the University of Arizona Research Institutional Review Board (Protocol 1701128802), 25 January 2017.

Impact of a Community Health Worker (CHW) Home Visiting Intervention on Any and Adequate Prenatal Care Among Ethno-Racially Diverse Pregnant Women of the US Southwest.

OBJECTIVES: Social and structural barriers drive disparities in prenatal care utilization among minoritized women in the United States. This study examined the impact of Arizona's Health Start Program, a community health worker (CHW) home visiting intervention, on prenatal care utilization among an ethno-racially and geographically diverse cohort of women. METHODS: We used Health Start administrative and state birth certificate data to identify women enrolled in the program during 2006-2016 (n = 7,117). Propensity score matching was used to generate a statistically-similar comparison group (n = 53,213) of women who did not participate in the program. Odds ratios were used to compare rates of prenatal care utilization. The process was repeated for select subgroups, with post-match regression adjustments applied where necessary. RESULTS: Health Start participants were more likely to report any (OR 1.24, 95%CI 1.02-1.50) and adequate (OR 1.08, 95%CI 1.01-1.16) prenatal care, compared to controls. Additional specific subgroups were significantly more likely to receive any prenatal care: American Indian women (OR 2.22, 95%CI 1.07-4.60), primipara women (OR 1.64, 95%CI 1.13-2.38), teens (OR 1.58, 95%CI 1.02-2.45), women in rural border counties (OR 1.45, 95%CI 1.05-1.98); and adequate prenatal care: teens (OR 1.31, 95%CI 1.11-1.55), women in rural border counties (OR 1.18, 95%CI 1.05-1.33), primipara women (OR 1.18, 95%CI 1.05-1.32), women with less than high school education (OR 1.13, 95%CI 1.00-1.27). CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE: A CHW-led perinatal home visiting intervention operated through a state health department can improve prenatal care utilization among demographically and socioeconomically disadvantaged women and reduce maternal and child health inequity.

Homeless Opioid Treatment Clients Transitioning to Dependent and Independent Housing: Differential Outcomes by Race/Ethnicity.

Purpose: Homeless opioid treatment clients who transition into housing generally demonstrate better outcomes, but housing environments vary widely and may not benefit racial/ethnic minority populations equally. We sought to identify how race/ethnicity moderates the association between positive opioid treatment response and moving into dependent or independent living environments. Methods: We used the Treatment Episode Dataset-Discharges (2018-2019) to identify outpatient treatment clients who were homeless at admission and indicated heroin or other opioids as their primary drug of choice (n = 20,021). We defined positive treatment response as a reduction in opioid use between admission and discharge. We used multivariable logistic regression to model treatment response. We included an interaction between housing at discharge (remained homeless [reference], dependent living, or independent living) and race/ethnicity, and adjusted for relevant confounders. Results: Transitioning from homeless to dependent living was positively associated with treatment response among White (aOR = 3.57, 95% CI = 3.15-4.06), Hispanic (aOR = 2.11, 95% CI = 1.55-2.86), and Black clients (aOR = 1.79, 95% CI = 1.41-2.27), but no association was observed for homeless American Indian/Alaska Native clients. Transitioning from homeless to independent living was strongly associated with treatment response among all groups with the strongest association observed among White clients (aOR = 4.70, 95% CI = 4.26-5.19). Conclusions: Interventions aimed at improving OUD treatment outcomes among homeless clients should identify individual and structural factors that support moving into fully housed and independent living environments. Dependent living offers needed support during crises, but should be temporary and priority should be placed on independent, permanent, and autonomous living environments.

Racial/Ethnic Differences in Drug- and Alcohol-Related Arrest Outcomes in a Southwest County From 2009 to 2018.

Objectives. To estimate the association between race/ethnicity and drug- and alcohol-related arrest outcomes.Methods. We used multinomial logistic regression and general estimating equations to estimate the association between race/ethnicity and arrest outcomes in 36 073 drug- and alcohol-related arrests obtained from administrative records in a Southwest US county from 2009 to 2018. Results were stratified by charge type.Results. Among misdemeanor drug- and alcohol-related arrests, American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN; adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 3.60; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 3.32, 3.90), Latino (AOR = 1.53; 95% CI = 1.35, 1.73), and Black persons (AOR = 1.28; 95% CI = 1.05, 1.55) were more likely than White persons to be booked into jail as opposed to cited and released. AI/AN (AOR = 10.77; 95% CI = 9.40, 12.35), Latino (AOR = 2.63; 95% CI = 2.12, 3.28), and Black persons (AOR = 1.84; 95% CI = 1.19, 2.84) also were more likely than White persons to be convicted and serve time for their misdemeanor charges. Results were similar for felony drug- and alcohol-related arrests aggregated and stratified.Conclusions. Our results suggest that race/ethnicity is associated with outcomes in drug-related arrests and that overrepresentation of racial/ethnic minorities in the criminal justice system cannot be attributed to greater use of drugs and alcohol in general.

Establishing voluntary certification of community health workers in Arizona: a policy case study of building a unified workforce.

BACKGROUND: Community health workers (CHWs) are widely recognized as essential to addressing disparities in health care delivery and outcomes in US vulnerable populations. In the state of Arizona, the sustainability of the workforce is threatened by low wages, poor job security, and limited opportunities for training and advancement within the profession. CHW voluntary certification offers an avenue to increase the recognition, compensation, training, and standardization of the workforce. However, passing voluntary certification legislation in an anti-regulatory state such as Arizona posed a major challenge that required a robust advocacy effort. CASE PRESENTATION: In this article, we describe the process of unifying the two major CHW workforces in Arizona, promotoras de salud in US-Mexico border communities and community health representatives (CHRs) serving American Indian communities. Differences in the origins, financing, and even language of the population-served contributed to historically divergent interests between CHRs and promotoras. In order to move forward as a collective workforce, it was imperative to integrate the perspectives of CHRs, who have a regular funding stream and work closely through the Indian Health Services, with those of promotoras, who are more likely to be grant-funded in community-based efforts. As a unified workforce, CHWs were better positioned to gain advocacy support from key health care providers and health insurance companies with policy influence. We seek to elucidate the lessons learned in our process that may be relevant to CHWs representing diverse communities across the US and internationally. CONCLUSIONS: Legislated voluntary certification provides a pathway for further professionalization of the CHW workforce by establishing a standard definition and set of core competencies. Voluntary certification also provides guidance to organizations in developing appropriate training and job activities, as well as ongoing professional development opportunities. In developing certification with CHWs representing different populations, and in particular Tribal Nations, it is essential to assure that the CHW definition is in alignment with all groups and that the scope of practice reflects CHW roles in both clinic and community-based settings. The Arizona experience underscores the benefits of a flexible approach that leverages existing strengths in organizations and the population served.

Youth Participatory Action Research for Youth Substance Use Prevention: A Systematic Review.

Background: A growing body of research points to the efficacy of participatory methods in decreasing rates of alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use and other risky behaviors among youth. However, to date, no systematic review of the literature has been conducted on Youth Participatory Action Research (YPAR) for youth substance use prevention. This review draws on the peer-reviewed literature on YPAR in the context of youth substance use prevention published from January 1, 1998 through April 30, 2018. Methods: We summarize (1) the published evidence regarding YPAR for youth substance use prevention; (2) the level of youth engagement in the research process; (3) the methodologies used in YPAR studies for youth substance use prevention; and (4) where more research is needed. We used Reliability-Tested Guidelines for Assessing Participatory Research Projects to assess the level of youth engagement in the research process. Results: In all, we identified 15 unduplicated peer-reviewed, English-language articles that referenced YPAR, Community Based Participatory Research, youth, and substance use prevention. Conclusions: Our findings indicated that youth participation in research and social action resulted in increased community awareness of substance use and related solutions. This supports the premise of youth participation as an agent of community change by producing community-specific substance use data and prevention materials. Identified weaknesses include inconsistent levels of youth engagement throughout the research process, a lack of formalized agreements between youth and researchers with regard to project and data management, and a lack of outcome evaluation measures for assessing YPAR for youth substance use prevention.

Community Health Workers in the United States: Challenges in Identifying, Surveying, and Supporting the Workforce.

Community health workers (CHWs) are members of a growing profession in the United States. Studying this dynamic labor force is challenging, in part because its members have more than 100 different job titles. The demand for timely, accurate information about CHWs is increasing as the profession gains recognition for its ability to improve health outcomes and reduce costs. Although numerous surveys of CHWs have been conducted, the field lacks well-delineated methods for gaining access to this hard-to-identify workforce. We outline methods for surveying CHWs and promising approaches to engage the workforce and other stakeholders in conducting local, state, and national studies. We also highlight successful strategies to overcome challenges in CHW surveys and future directions for surveying the field.

Community Health Worker Impact on Chronic Disease Outcomes Within Primary Care Examined Using Electronic Health Records.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate community health worker (CHW) effects on chronic disease outcomes using electronic health records (EHRs). METHODS: We examined EHRs of 32 147 patients at risk for chronic disease during 2012 to 2015. Variables included contact with clinic-based CHWs, vitals, and laboratory tests. We estimated a mixed model for all outcomes. RESULTS: Within-group findings showed statistically significant improvements in chronic disease indicators after exposure to CHWs. In health center 1, HbA1c (glycated hemoglobin) decreased 0.15 millimoles per mole (95% confidence interval [CI] = -0.24, -0.06), body mass index decreased 0.29 kilograms per meter squared (CI = -0.39, -0.20), and total cholesterol decreased 11.9 milligrams per deciliter (CI = -13.5, -10.2). In health center 2, HbA1c decreased 0.43 millimoles per mole (CI = -0.7, -0.17), body mass index decreased by 0.08 kilograms per meter squared (CI = -0.14, -0.02), and triglycerides decreased by 22.50 milligrams per deciliter (CI = -39.0, -6.0). Total cholesterol of 3.62 milligrams per deciliter (CI = -6.6, -0.6) in health center 1 was the only improvement tied to CHW contact. CONCLUSIONS: Although patients' chronic disease indicators consistently improved, between-group models provided no additional evidence of impact. EHRs' evolution may elucidate CHW contributions moving forward.

Community Health Workers Promote Civic Engagement and Organizational Capacity to Impact Policy.

Community health workers (CHW) have historically served to link structurally vulnerable populations to broad support systems. Emerging evidence suggests that CHWs engage in various forms of advocacy to promote policy and systems change. We assessed the impact of CHW community advocacy on community change, defined as civic engagement, organizational capacity and policy and systems change. Data are drawn from the 2014 National Community Health Worker Advocacy Survey (N = 1776) aimed to identify the state of the CHW profession, and their impact on health disparities through community advocacy and policy engagement. Our primary analysis used multiple linear regression to assess the association between CHW advocacy and community change. As predicted, there was a significant, positive association between CHW advocacy and change in community conditions. Additionally, both adjusted and sensitivity models had similar standardized beta estimates for advocacy, and adjusted R 2 statistics. CHW advocacy predicts positive change in community conditions and further advances the CHW Community Advocacy Framework designed to support and monitor CHW community advocacy to reduce health disparities through advocacy and policy change.

Identifying Protective Factors to Promote Health in American Indian and Alaska Native Adolescents: A Literature Review.

Exposure to protective factors, conditions that protect against the occurrence of an undesirable outcome or promote the occurrence of a desirable outcome within an adolescent's environment, can foster healthy adolescent behaviors and reduce adult morbidity and mortality. Yet, little is known about the nature and effect of protective factors on the positive social and health outcomes among American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) adolescents. We conducted a review of the literature to identify the protective factors associated with positive health outcomes among AIAN adolescents. We consulted Elsevier Science Direct, ERIC EBSCOhost, PubMed, and the Web of Science databases. A total of 3421 articles were encountered. Excluded publications were those that did not focus on AIAN adolescents (n = 3341), did not identify protective factors (n = 56), were not original research studies (n = 8), or were not written in the English language. We identified nine categories of protective factors positively associated with health and social outcomes, including: current and/or future aspirations, personal wellness, positive self-image, self-efficacy, non-familial connectedness, family connectedness, positive opportunities, positive social norms, and cultural connectedness. Such factors positively influenced adolescent alcohol, tobacco, and substance use; delinquent and violent behavior; emotional health including depression, suicide attempt; resilience; and academic success. Protective factors spanned multiple domains of the socio-ecological model. Strengths-based health promotion efforts that leverage local, innate protective factors and work with AIANs to create environments rich in protective factors are key to improving the health and wellbeing of AIAN adolescents.

Breathing clean air is Sa'áh Naagháí Bik'eh Hózhóó (SNBH): a culturally centred approach to understanding commercial smoke-free policy among the Diné (Navajo People).

INTRODUCTION: Indigenous worldviews and research approaches are fundamental to make meaning of complex health issues and increase the likelihood of identifying existing cultural protective factors that have contributed to the resilience and survival of Indigenous people worldwide. OBJECTIVE: We describe the process for applying the Diné (Navajo) paradigm of Sa'áh Naagháí Bik'eh Hózhóó (SNBH), a belief system that guides harmonious living, and demonstrate how the application of SNBH enhances understanding of Navajo principles for well-being. Specifically, we juxtapose this analysis with a conventional qualitative analysis to illuminate and interpret Diné perspectives on the health and economic impact of commercial secondhand smoke and smoke-free policy. METHODS: Focus groups were conducted throughout Navajo Nation to assess the appeal and impact of several evidence-based messages regarding the health and economic impact of smoke-free policy. RESULTS: Diné perspectives have shifted away from family and cultural teachings considered protective of a smoke-free life, and struggle to balance the ethical and economics of respect for individual and collective rights to live and work in smoke-free environments. CONCLUSIONS: Indigenous-centred approaches to public health research and policy analysis contribute to understanding the cultural knowledge, practices and beliefs that are protective of the health and well-being of Indigenous people.

Advancing smoke-free policy adoption on the Navajo Nation.

BACKGROUND: Comprehensive smoke-free laws are effective at protecting non-smokers and reducing tobacco use, yet they are not widely adopted by tribal governments. METHODS: A series of smoke-free policy initiatives on the Navajo Nation, beginning in 2008, were reviewed to identify key issues, successes and setbacks. RESULTS: It has been essential that proposed policies acknowledge the Navajo people's spiritual use of nát'oh, a sacred plant used for gift-giving, medicinal purposes and traditional ceremonies, while simultaneously discouraging a secular use of commercial tobacco. Concern that smoke-free policies economically harm tribal casinos has been a major barrier to broad implementation of comprehensive smoke-free laws in Navajo Nation. CONCLUSIONS: It is necessary for tobacco control researchers and advocates to build relationships with tribal leaders and casino management in order to develop the business case that will take comprehensive smoke-free policies to scale throughout tribal lands.

Service learning: a vehicle for building health equity and eliminating health disparities.

Service learning (SL) is a form of community-centered experiential education that places emerging health professionals in community-generated service projects and provides structured opportunities for reflection on the broader social, economic, and political contexts of health. We describe the elements and impact of five distinct week-long intensive SL courses focused on the context of urban, rural, border, and indigenous health contexts. Students involved in these SL courses demonstrated a commitment to community-engaged scholarship and practice in both their student and professional lives. SL is directly in line with the core public health value of social justice and serves as a venue to strengthen community-campus partnerships in addressing health disparities through sustained collaboration and action in vulnerable communities.

A community health worker intervention to address the social determinants of health through policy change.

Public policy that seeks to achieve sustainable improvements in the social determinants of health, such as income, education, housing, food security and neighborhood conditions, can create positive and sustainable health effects. This paper describes preliminary results of Acción para la Salud, a public health intervention in which Community health workers (CHWs) from five health agencies engaged their community in the process of making positive systems and environmental changes. Academic-community partners trained Acción CHWs in community advocacy and provided ongoing technical assistance in developing strategic advocacy plans. The CHWs documented community advocacy activities through encounter forms in which they identified problems, formulated solutions, and described systems and policy change efforts. Strategy maps described the steps of the advocacy plans. Findings demonstrate that CHWs worked to initiate discussions about underlying social determinants and environment-related factors that impact health, and identified solutions to improve neighborhood conditions, create community opportunities, and increase access to services.

Aquí Entre Nos (Just Between Us): Engagement of Hotel Housekeepers During Sociopolitical and Environmental Change.

BACKGROUND: Aquí Entre Nos (Between Us) is a community-based participatory research project to engage rural, ethno-racially diverse hotel housekeepers in a right to work state during a time of national anti-immigrant policy, wildfires and emergence of a global pandemic. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to (1) build trust and social support with the hotel housekeeping community, (2) learn about the occupational health, safety, and workers' rights challenges, strategies, and solutions held by workers, and (3) develop a workforce-driven research and action agenda to improve labor and health conditions. METHODS: Participatory mixed methods rooted in popular education are described to form an advisory board and engage the workforce. LESSONS LEARNED: Trusted relationships built through community organizing around immigration, housing, and minimum wage were critical to engage and drive a worker centered research agenda. CONCLUSIONS: Despite challenges, housekeeper advisors defined a research agenda that addressed immediate-and long-term needs of the workforce.

An inaugural forum on epidemiological modeling for public health stakeholders in Arizona.

Epidemiological models-which help us understand and forecast the spread of infectious disease-can be valuable tools for public health. However, barriers exist that can make it difficult to employ epidemiological models routinely within the repertoire of public health planning. These barriers include technical challenges associated with constructing the models, challenges in obtaining appropriate data for model parameterization, and problems with clear communication of modeling outputs and uncertainty. To learn about the unique barriers and opportunities within the state of Arizona, we gathered a diverse set of 48 public health stakeholders for a day-and-a-half forum. Our research group was motivated specifically by our work building software for public health-relevant modeling and by our earnest desire to collaborate closely with stakeholders to ensure that our software tools are practical and useful in the face of evolving public health needs. Here we outline the planning and structure of the forum, and we highlight as a case study some of the lessons learned from breakout discussions. While unique barriers exist for implementing modeling for public health, there is also keen interest in doing so across diverse sectors of State and Local government, although issues of equal and fair access to modeling knowledge and technologies remain key issues for future development. We found this forum to be useful for building relationships and informing our software development, and we plan to continue such meetings annually to create a continual feedback loop between academic molders and public health practitioners.

Limited Awareness of Long COVID Despite Common Experience of Symptoms Among African American/Black, Hispanic/Latino, and Indigenous Adults in Arizona.

OBJECTIVES: Communities of color might disproportionately experience long-term consequences of COVID-19, known as Long COVID. We sought to understand the awareness of and experiences with Long COVID among African American/Black (AA/B), Hispanic/Latino (H/L), and Indigenous (Native) adults (18 + years of age) in Arizona who previously tested positive for COVID-19. METHODS: Between December 2022 and April 2023, the Arizona Community Engagement Alliance (AZCEAL) conducted 12 focus groups and surveys with 65 AA/B, H/L and Native community members. Data from focus groups were analyzed using thematic analysis to identify emerging issues. Survey data provided demographic information about participants and quantitative assessments of Long COVID experiences were used to augment focus group data. RESULTS: Study participants across all three racial/ethnic groups had limited to no awareness of the term Long COVID, yet many described experiencing or witnessing friends and family endure physical symptoms consistent with Long COVID (e.g., brain fog, loss of memory, fatigue) as well as associated mental health issues (e.g., anxiety, worry, post-traumatic stress disorder). Participants identified a need for Long COVID mental health and other health resources, as well as increased access to Long COVID information. CONCLUSION: To prevent Long COVID health inequities among AA/B, H/L, and Native adults living in AZ, health-related organizations and providers should increase access to culturally relevant, community-based Long COVID-specific information, mental health services, and other health resources aimed at serving these populations.