The impact of COVID-19-related restrictions on pregnancy and abortion rates in the Republic of Georgia.

BACKGROUND: The Republic of Georgia implemented COVID-19-related restrictions starting on 31 March 2020, when it imposed a 1-month strict lockdown, after which the country continued with some form of restrictions for 1 year. These restrictions created barriers to healthcare access, affected healthcare services, caused severe economic degradation, and changed reproductive behavior. The aim of this study was to explore the impact of COVID-19-related restrictions on pregnancy and abortion rates in Georgia. METHODS: Information on pregnancy, abortion, and related variables was extracted from the Georgian Birth Registry from January 2018 through April 2022. The final study sample included 232,594 pregnancies and 86,729 abortions. We used interrupted time series analysis to study the impact of COVID-19-related restrictions. RESULTS: There were slightly decreasing trends in pregnancy and abortion rates in the pre-pandemic period (1 January 2018-31 March 2020). During the 1-month strict lockdown (1 April-30 April 2020), pregnancy and abortion rates decreased in all investigated age groups. There were no substantial differences in pregnancy or abortion rates in the pandemic period (for pregnancies: 1 April 2020-30 June 2021; for abortions: 1 April 2020-30 April 2022) compared to the pre-pandemic period. The precision of all estimates suggested that both small increases and decreases in pregnancy and abortion rates are reasonably compatible with our data. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the 1-year-long COVID-19-related restrictions, our results did not indicate substantial long-term changes in pregnancy or abortion rates during the study period for any age group. This may indicate that the restrictions did not substantially influence access to contraception, abortion services, or reproductive behavior.

Combining photo-elicitation and discourse analysis to examine adolescents' sexuality in rural Zambia.

INTRODUCTION: This article aimed to analyse constructions of adolescents' sexualities and sexual health and the consequences of these discourses for adolescents' exercise of their sexual reproductive health and rights (SRHR) in rural Zambia. METHODS: Interpretative repertoires, which is rooted in discursive psychology was used to analyse data from photo-elicitations interviews and focus group discussions. Our participants included 25 adolescents who participated in a SRHR intervention that aimed to reduce adolescents' pregnancies and early marriages. RESULTS: We identified three interpretative repertories: 1) sex is for mature people in which adolescents positioned themselves as 'immature, and young to engage in sex; 2) gendered respectful behaviours in which what was considered disrespectful (and respectful) behaviour in relation to sexuality were strongly influenced by gender, and more clearly defined for girls than it was for boys. Sexuality was not only about individual choices but about being respectful to parents; and 3) acquiring and using knowledge about sexuality in which adolescents conflicted between having and applying SRHR knowledge. CONCLUSION: These repertories offer an important context that shape how adolescents negotiate, adopt and resist SRHR interventions. Future interventions that target adolescents' SRHR must aim to address the sexual scripts that serve to erect barriers against positive sexual behaviours, including access to SRHR services that promote safer sex.

Application of community dialogue approach to prevent adolescent pregnancy, early marriage and school dropout in Zambia: a case study.

BACKGROUND: Adolescent pregnancy carries both health and economic risks for the pregnant girl and resulting baby, and it is common in Zambia. Providing alternative methods of preventing early pregnancy than abstinence is regarded as culturally and religiously unacceptable in most parts of the country. The community dialogue approach is being tested to address norms and beliefs around early pregnancy, marriage and school dropout, and is based on Paulo Freire's transformative communication approach. The objective of this paper was to understand parents' perspectives on the application of the community dialogue approach in addressing adolescents' early pregnancy and school dropout in a cluster randomized controlled trial in rural Zambia. METHODS/DESIGN: This was a case study design. We nested the study in the community dialogue intervention arm of the Research Initiative to Support the Empowerment of Girls trial in Zambia. Dialogue meetings were held and economic support was provided for a period of 27 months from September 2016 until November 2018. We held focus group discussions in November 2018 with guardians/parents in six schools in Chibombo District of Central Province. All the discussions were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data. RESULTS: The guardians/parents perceived the community dialogue to be a relevant approach for addressing social and cultural norms regarding early pregnancy, marriage and school dropout. It was embraced for its value in initiating individual and collective change. The facilitators' interactive approach and dialogue in the community meetings coupled with the use of films and role plays with the parents, lead to active participation and open discussions about sexual and reproductive health (SRH) topics during the community dialogue meetings. Group interactions and sharing of experiences helped parents clarify their SRH values and subsequently made them feel able to communicate about SRH issues with their children. However, cultural and religious beliefs among the parents regarding some topics, like the use of condoms and contraceptives, complicated the delivery of reproductive health messages from the parents to their children. CONCLUSION: The study indicated that the community dialogue was appreciated by the parents and helped in addressing cultural barriers to discussing SRH issues between generations.

Parent-child communication about sexual issues in Zambia: a cross sectional study of adolescent girls and their parents.

BACKGROUND: Parent-child communication about sexual issues can reduce risky sexual behaviour amongst adolescents. Risky sexual behaviour is of concern in sub-Saharan Africa where the prevalence of early pregnancy, unsafe abortion and HIV are high. Parent-child communication about sexual issues presents a feasible approach for reducing sexual risk amongst adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa but limited research exists from the region. This study from Zambia examines the sociodemographic and psychosocial factors that are associated with whether parents communicate with their daughters about sexual issues. METHODS: Data from a cluster randomized controlled trial examining the effect of interventions aiming to reduce teenage pregnancy and school drop out in Zambia was used. The data was collected between January-July in 2018 and consists of structured, face to face interviews with 4343 adolescent girls and 3878 parents. Cross sectional analyses examined the associations between parent-child communication about sexual issues and sociodemographic and psychosocial characteristics using univariate and multivariable logistic regression models. RESULTS: Adolescent girls who felt connected to their parents and those who perceived their parents to be comfortable in communicating about sex, were more likely to speak to their parents about sexual issues than those who did not (AOR 1.23, 95% CI 1.01-1.52; and AOR 2.94, 95% CI 2.45-3.54, respectively). Girls whose parents used fear-based communication about sexual issues, and those who perceived their parents as being opposed to education about contraception, were less likely to communicate with their parents about sex than those who did not (AOR 0.76, 95% CI 0.65-0.89; and AOR 0.76, 95% CI 0.63-0.91, respectively). Girls enrolled in school were less likely to communicate with their parents about sex than those out of school (AOR 0.56, 95% CI 0.44-0.71). CONCLUSION: Parenting style, children's perception of parental attitudes and parental communication styles are associated with whether parents and children communicate about sexual issues. This may imply that parents can improve the chances of communicating with their children about sex by conveying non-judgemental attitudes, using open communication styles with neutral messages and appearing comfortable whilst displaying positive attitudes towards communication around sex and contraceptive use. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN registry: ISRCTN12727868 , (4 March 2016).

Can sexual health interventions make community-based health systems more responsive to adolescents? A realist informed study in rural Zambia.

INTRODUCTION: Community-based sexual reproductive interventions are key in attaining universal health coverage for all by 2030, yet adolescents in many countries still lack health services that are responsive to their sexual reproductive health and rights' needs. As the first step of realist evaluation, this study provides a programme theory that explains how, why and under what circumstances community-based sexual reproductive health interventions can transform (or not) 'ordinary' community-based health systems (CBHSs) into systems that are responsive to the sexual reproductive health of adolescents. METHODS: This realist approach adopted a case study design. We nested the study in the full intervention arm of the Research Initiative to Support the Empowerment of Girls trial in Zambia. Sixteen in-depth interviews were conducted with stakeholders involved in the development and/or implementation of the trial. All the interviews were recorded and analysed using NVIVO version 12.0. Thematic analysis was used guided by realist evaluation concepts. The findings were later synthesized using the Intervention-Context-Actors-Mechanism-Outcomes conceptualization tool. Using the retroduction approach, we summarized the findings into two programme theories. RESULTS: We identified two initial testable programme theories. The first theory presumes that adolescent sexual reproductive health and rights (SRHR) interventions that are supported by contextual factors, such as existing policies and guidelines related to SRHR, socio-cultural norms and CBHS structures are more likely to trigger mechanisms among the different actors that can encourage uptake of the interventions, and thus contribute to making the CBHS responsive to the SRHR needs of adolescents. The second and alternative theory suggests that SRHR interventions, if not supported by contextual factors, are less likely to transform the CBHSs in which they are implemented. At individual level the mechanisms, awareness and knowledge were expected to lead to value clarification', which was also expected would lead to individuals developing a 'supportive attitude towards adolescent SRHR. It was anticipated that these individual mechanisms would in turn trigger the collective mechanisms, communication, cohesion, social connection and linkages. CONCLUSION: The two alternative programme theories describe how, why and under what circumstances SRHR interventions that target adolescents can transform 'ordinary' community-based health systems into systems that are responsive to adolescents.

The challenge of community engagement and informed consent in rural Zambia: an example from a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: There is a need for empirically based research on social and ethical challenges related to informed consent processes, particularly in studies focusing on adolescent sexual and reproductive health. In a pilot study of a school-based pregnancy prevention intervention in rural Zambia, the majority of the guardians who were asked to consent to their daughters' participation, refused. In this paper we explore the reasons behind the low participation in the pilot with particular attention to challenges related to the community engagement and informed consent process. METHODS: The pilot was implemented in two schools and examined the acceptability of a package of interventions including economic support to families to keep their girls in school, pocket money for girls, youth club meetings on reproductive health, and community meetings to sensitize the community. Focus group discussions (4) were conducted with girls who participated in the pilot, boys in their class and with parents. Individual semi-structured interviews (11) were conducted with teachers, peer educators and community health workers involved in the coordination of the intervention as well as with religious and traditional leaders. Data were analyzed through thematic analysis. RESULTS: The findings indicate that inadequate use of recognized community communication channels during the community engagement process and dissemination of information about the pilot resulted in limited understanding of the pilot concept by the community. This surfaced through uncertainty and fear that the intervention may result in loss of control over daughters, worries about why money was provided unconditionally to girls, and suspicion of links to satanism. The sense of insecurity appeared to be exacerbated by low literacy levels, poverty, fear of loss of bride wealth, perceived disregard for local perceptions of social status, and scanty trust in the actors implementing the pilot. CONCLUSIONS: Inadequate use of locally appropriate channels in the dissemination of information created room for interpretation and facilitated development of mistrust, undermining the conditions for community engagement and actual informed consent. A key lesson learnt is the importance of taking seriously the complexity of local values and structures that may impact people's capability to consent or not consent to a study in an informed manner.

Community based interventions for strengthening adolescent sexual reproductive health and rights: how can they be integrated and sustained? A realist evaluation protocol from Zambia.

BACKGROUND: Research that explores how community-based interventions for strengthening adolescent sexual reproductive health and rights (SRHR) can be integrated and sustained in community health systems, is, to the best of our knowledge, very scarce, if not absent. It is important to document mechanisms that shape integration process in order to improve health systems' responsiveness towards adolescents' SRHR. This realist evaluation protocol will contribute to this knowledge in Zambia where there is increased attention towards promoting maternal, neonatal and child health as a means of addressing the current high early pregnancy and marriage rates. The protocol will ascertain: why, how, and under what conditions the integration of SRHR interventions into Zambian community health systems will optimise (or not) acceptability and adoption of SRHR services. This study is embedded within a randomized controlled trial - "Research Initiative to Support the Empowerment of Girls (RISE)"- which aims to reduce adolescent girl pregnancies and marriages through a package of interventions including economic support to families, payment of school fees to keep girls in school, pocket money for girls, as well as youth club and community meetings on reproductive health. METHODS: This is a multiple-case study design. Data will be collected from schools, health facilities and communities through individual and group interviews, photovoice, documentary review, and observations. The study process will involve 1) developing an initial causal theory that proposes an explanation of how the integration of a community-based intervention that aimed to integrate adolescent SRHR into the community health system may lead to adolescent-friendly services; 2) refining the causal theory through case studies; 3) identifying contextual conditions and mechanisms that shape the integration process; and 4) finally proposing a refined causal theory and set of recommendations to guide policy makers, steer further research, and inform teaching programmes. DISCUSSION: The study will document relevant values as well as less formal and horizontal mechanisms which shape the integration process of SRHR interventions at community level. Knowledge on mechanisms is essential for guiding development of strategies for effectively facilitating the integration process, scaling up processes and sustainability of interventions aimed at reducing SRH problems and health inequalities among adolescents.

A comparison of sexual risk behaviours and HIV seroprevalence among circumcised and uncircumcised men before and after implementation of the safe male circumcision programme in Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Although male circumcision reduces the heterosexual HIV transmission risk, its effect may be attenuated if circumcised men increase sexual risk behaviours (SRB) due to perceived low risk. In Uganda information about the protective effects of circumcision has been publicly disseminated since 2007. If increased awareness of the protection increases SRB among circumcised men, it is likely that differences in prevalence of SRB among circumcised versus uncircumcised men will change over time. This study aimed at comparing SRBs and HIV sero-status of circumcised and uncircumcised men before and after the launch of the safe male circumcision programme. METHODS: Data from the 2004 and 2011 Uganda AIDS Indicator Surveys (UAIS) were used. The analyses were based on generalized linear models, obtaining prevalence ratios (PR) as measures of association between circumcision status and multiple sexual partners, transactional sex, sex with non-marital partners, condom use at last non-marital sex, and HIV infection. In addition we conducted multivariate analyses adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics, and the multivariate models for HIV status were also adjusted for SRB. RESULTS: Twenty six percent of men were circumcised in 2004 and 28% in 2011. Prevalence of SRB was higher among circumcised men in both surveys. In the unadjusted analysis, circumcision was associated with having multiple sexual partners and non-marital partners. Condom use was not associated with circumcision in 2004, but in 2011 circumcised men were less likely to report condom use with the last non-marital partner. The associations between the other sexual risk behaviours and circumcision status were stable across the two surveys." In both surveys, circumcised men were less likely to be HIV positive (Adj PR 0.55; CI: 0.41-0.73 in 2004 and Adj PR 0.64; CI: 0.49-0.83 in 2011). CONCLUSIONS: There was higher prevalence of SRBs among circumcised men in both surveys, but the only significant change from 2004 to 2011 was a lower prevalence of condom use among the circumcised. Nevertheless, HIV prevalence was lower among circumcised men. Targeted messages for circumcised men and their sexual partners to continue using condoms even after circumcision should be enhanced to avoid risk compensation.

Rural-urban differentials in pregnancy-related mortality in Zambia: estimates using data collected in a census.

BACKGROUND: The use of census data to measure maternal mortality is a recent phenomenon, implemented in settings with non-functional vital registration systems and driven by needs for trend data. The 2010 round of population and housing censuses recorded a significant increase in the number of countries collecting maternal mortality data. The objective of this study was to estimate rural-urban differentials in pregnancy-related mortality in Zambia using census data. METHODS: We used data from the Zambia 2000 and 2010 censuses. Both censuses recorded the female population by age, the number of children ever born, and live births 12 months prior to the census. The 2010 census further recorded, by age, household, and pregnancy-related deaths 12 months prior to the census. We evaluated and adjusted recorded live births using the cohort Parity Fertility ratio method, and household deaths using deaths distribution methods (General Growth Balance and Synthetic Extinct Generation). Adult female mortality and pregnancy-related mortality for rural and urban areas were estimated for the period October 2009 to October 2010. RESULTS: Data evaluation showed errors in recorded population age, age-at-death, live births, and deaths, and appropriate adjustments were made. Adjusted adult female mortality was high; an adolescent aged 15 years had a one-in-three chance of dying before her 50th birthday in rural areas and one-in-four chance in urban areas. Pregnancy-related deaths comprised 15.3 % of all deaths among reproductive-age women overall; 17.9 % in rural areas and 9.8 % in urban areas. The pregnancy-related mortality ratio for the period was 789 deaths/100,000 live births overall: 960/100,000 live births in rural areas and 470/100,000 live births in urban areas. CONCLUSIONS: Census-based estimates show very high adult female mortality and particularly high pregnancy-related mortality in both rural and urban areas of Zambia 12 months prior to the 2010 census. Future censuses should pay greater attention to strategies for improving data quality.

Trends in and socio-demographic factors associated with caesarean section at a Tanzanian referral hospital, 2000 to 2013.

BACKGROUND: Caesarean section (CS) can prevent maternal or fetal complications. Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest CS levels in the world but large variations are seen between and within countries. The tertiary hospital, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre (KCMC) in Tanzania has had a high level of CS over years. The aim of this study was to examine trends in the socio-demographic background of babies born at KCMC from year 2000 to 2013, and trends in the CS percentage, and to identify socio-demographic factors associated with CS at KCMC during this period. METHODS: This is a registry-based study. The analyses were limited to singletons born by women from Moshi urban and rural districts. The Chi square test for linear trend was used to examine trends in the CS percentage and trends in the socio-demographic background of the baby. The association between different socio-demographic factors and CS was assessed using logistic regression. The analyses were stratified by the mother's residence. RESULTS: The educational level of mothers and fathers and the age of the mothers of singletons born at KCMC increased significantly from year 2000 to 2013 both among urban and rural residents. Among 29,752 singletons, the overall CS percentage was 28.9%, and there was no clear trend in the overall CS percentage between 2000 and 2013. In the multivariable model, factors associated with higher odds of CS were: having been referred for delivery, maternal age above 25 and no- or primary education level of the baby's father. Among rural mothers, no- or primary education, being from the Pare tribe and para 2-3 were also associated with higher odds of CS. Being from the Chagga tribe and high parity were associated with lower odds of CS compared to other tribes and parity 1. CONCLUSIONS: The CS percentage remained high but stable over time. Large variations in CS levels between different socio-demographic groups were observed. The educational level of the parents of babies born at KCMC increased over time, possibly reflecting persistent inequitable access to the services offered at the hospital.

Impact of an integrated health, nutrition, and early child stimulation and responsive care intervention package delivered to preterm or term small for gestational age babies during infancy on growth and neurodevelopment: study protocol of an individually randomized controlled trial in India (Small Babies Trial).

BACKGROUND: Preterm and term small for gestational age (SGA) babies are at high risk of experiencing malnutrition and impaired neurodevelopment. Standalone interventions have modest and sometimes inconsistent effects on growth and neurodevelopment in these babies. For greater impact, intervention may be needed in multiple domains-health, nutrition, and psychosocial care and support. Therefore, the combined effects of an integrated intervention package for preterm and term SGA on growth and neurodevelopment are worth investigating. METHODS: An individually randomized controlled trial is being conducted in urban and peri-urban low to middle-socioeconomic neighborhoods in South Delhi, India. Infants are randomized (1:1) into two strata of 1300 preterm and 1300 term SGA infants each to receive the intervention package or routine care. Infants will be followed until 12 months of age. Outcome data will be collected by an independent outcome ascertainment team at infant ages 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months and at 2, 6, and 12 months after delivery for mothers. DISCUSSION: The findings of this study will indicate whether providing an intervention that addresses factors known to limit growth and neurodevelopment can offer substantial benefits to preterm or term SGA infants. The results from this study will increase our understanding of growth and development and guide the design of public health programs in low- and middle-income settings for vulnerable infants. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial has been registered prospectively in Clinical Trial Registry - India # CTRI/2021/11/037881, Registered on 08 November 2021.

Maternal antiretroviral treatment for HIV infection and risk of small-for-gestational-age birth: A systematic review and meta-analysis of protease inhibitor-based treatment and timing of treatment.

BACKGROUND: Data indicate that certain combination antiretroviral treatment (cART) regimens, particularly protease inhibitor (PI)-based regimens, and cART initiation before conception may be associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. The risk of having a small-for-gestational-age (SGA) infant was examined among pregnant HIV-infected mothers on 1) PI-based compared to non-PI-based cART, and 2) any cART initiated before compared to after conception. METHODS: A search was conducted using PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library, and a systematic review was performed of studies published since Dec 1, 1995. Effect estimates with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were extracted and meta-analyses with random-effects models were conducted. The certainty of evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation tool. FINDINGS: Of 783 identified studies, 28 fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Meta-analysis indicated that PI-based cART was associated with a possible slightly increased risk of SGA compared with non-PI-based cART (pooled odds ratio [OR]: 1·09; CI: 0·76, 1·55). Initiation of cART before conception was also associated with a possible slightly increased risk of SGA compared with after conception (pooled OR: 1·08; CI: 0·95, 1·22). The overall certainty of evidence was very low and low for the first and second research questions, respectively. INTERPRETATION: Although the benefits of cART largely outweigh the risks, these findings indicate the possibility of slightly increased risks of having an SGA infant. This indicates that careful monitoring of fetuses exposed to PI-based cART or cART before pregnancy might be reasonable. Based on the uncertainty of evidence, further research may change this conclusion.

Time trends in perinatal outcomes among HIV-positive pregnant women in Northern Tanzania: A registry-based study.

INTRODUCTION: Maternal HIV infection is associated with increased risk of having a preterm delivery, low birth weight baby, small for gestational age baby and stillbirth. Maternal use of combination antiretroviral treatment is also associated with preterm delivery and low birth weight, although the effects vary by the type of drugs and timing of initiation. OBJECTIVE: To examine time trends in adverse perinatal outcomes among HIV-positive compared with HIV-negative women. DESIGN: Registry-based cohort study. SETTING: Northern Tanzania, 2000-2018. STUDY SAMPLE: Mother-baby pairs of singleton deliveries (n = 41 156). METHODS: Perinatal outcomes of HIV-positive women were compared with HIV-negative women during time periods representing shifts in prevention of mother-to-child transmission guidelines. Monotherapy was used as first-line therapy before 2007 while combination antiretroviral treatment was routinely used from 2007. Log binomial and quantile regression were used to analyze the data. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Preterm delivery, low birth weight, perinatal death, stillbirth, low Apgar score, transfer to neonatal care unit and small for gestational age. RESULTS: Overall, maternal HIV infection was associated with a higher risk of low birth weight and small for gestational age. Moreover, this pattern became more pronounced over time for low birth weight, the last time period being an exception. For other outcomes we found none or only a small overall association with maternal HIV infection, although a trend towards higher risk over time in HIV-positive compared with HIV-negative women was observed for preterm delivery and perinatal death. Quantile regression showed an increase in birth weight in babies born to HIV-negative women over time and a corresponding decline in birth weight in babies born to HIV-positive women. CONCLUSION: Unfavourable trends in some of the selected perinatal outcomes were seen for HIV-positive compared with HIV-negative women. Potential side-effects of combination antiretroviral treatment in pregnancy should be further explored.

Etiologic pattern of genital ulcers in Lusaka, Zambia: has chancroid been eliminated?

BACKGROUND: Genital ulcers are a public health problem in developing countries. The World Health Organization recommends the use of syndromic guidelines for sexually transmitted infection treatment in resource-constrained countries. Monitoring local etiologies provides information that may aid policy for sexually transmitted infection treatment. We investigated the etiology of genital ulcer disease among outpatients in Lusaka, Zambia. METHODOLOGY: Swabs from genital ulcers of 200 patients were tested using polymerase chain reaction for Treponema pallidum, herpes simplex virus types 1 (HSV-1) and 2 (HSV-2), Haemophilus ducreyi, and Chlamydia trachomatis. RESULTS: The prevalence of the detected pathogens was as follows; HSV-2, 28%; T. pallidum, 11.5%; C. trachomatis, 3%; HSV-1, 0.5%; and H. ducreyi, 0%. Coinfection with HSV-2 and T. pallidum was 1.5%, and coinfection of HSV-2 and C. trachomatis was 1%. In 55% of the patients, no etiologic diagnosis could be established. CONCLUSIONS: H. ducreyi was not detected, whereas HSV-2 and T. pallidum were the commonest pathogens. Nondetection of H. ducreyi requires further studies. If the present findings are validated, treatment guidelines would require to be revised in Zambia.

Targeting condom distribution at high risk places increases condom utilization-evidence from an intervention study in Livingstone, Zambia.

BACKGROUND: The PLACE-method presumes that targeting HIV preventive activities at high risk places is effective in settings with major epidemics. Livingstone, Zambia, has a major HIV epidemic despite many preventive efforts in the city. A baseline survey conducted in 2005 in places where people meet new sexual partners found high partner turnover and unprotected sex to be common among guests. In addition, there were major gaps in on-site condom availability. This study aimed to assess the impact of a condom distribution and peer education intervention targeting places where people meet new sexual partners on condom use and sexual risk taking among people socializing there. METHODS: The 2005 baseline survey assessed the presence of HIV preventive activities and sexual risk taking in places where people meet new sexual partners in Livingstone. One township was selected for a non-randomised intervention study on condom distribution and peer education in high risk venues in 2009. The presence of HIV preventive activities in the venues during the intervention was monitored by an external person. The intervention was evaluated after one year with a follow-up survey in the intervention township and a comparison township. In addition, qualitative interviews and focus group discussions were conducted. RESULTS: Young people between 17-32 years of age were recruited as peer educators, and 40% were females. Out of 72 persons trained before the intervention, 38 quit, and another 11 had to be recruited. The percentage of venues where condoms were reported to always be available at least doubled in both townships, but was significantly higher in the intervention vs. the control venues in both surveys (84% vs. 33% in the follow-up). There was a reduction in reported sexual risk taking among guests socializing in the venues in both areas, but reporting of recent condom use increased more among people interviewed in the intervention (57% to 84%) than in the control community (55% to 68%). CONCLUSIONS: It is likely that the substantial increase in reported condom use in the intervention venues was partially due to the condom distribution and peer education intervention targeting these places. However, substantial changes were observed also in the comparison community over the five year period, and this indicates that major changes had occurred in overall risk taking among people socializing in venues where people meet new sexual partners in Livingstone. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01423357.

Condom availability in high risk places and condom use: a study at district level in Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia.

BACKGROUND: A number of studies from countries with severe HIV epidemics have found gaps in condom availability, even in places where there is a substantial potential for HIV transmission. Although reported condom use has increased in many African countries, there are often big differences by socioeconomic background. The aim of this study was to assess equity aspects of condom availability and uptake in three African districts to evaluate whether condom programmes are given sufficient priority. METHODS: Data on condom availability and use was examined in one district in Kenya, one in Tanzania and one in Zambia. The study was based on a triangulation of data collection methods in the three study districts: surveys in venues where people meet new sexual partners, population-based surveys and focus group discussions. The data was collected within an overall study on priority setting in health systems. RESULTS: At the time of the survey, condoms were observed in less than half of the high risk venues in two of the three districts and in 60% in the third district. Rural respondents in the population-based surveys perceived condoms to be less available and tended to be less likely to report condom use than urban respondents. Although focus group participants reported that condoms were largely available in their district, they expressed concerns related to the accessibility of free condoms. CONCLUSION: As late as thirty years into the HIV epidemic there are still important gaps in the availability of condoms in places where people meet new sexual partners in these three African districts. Considering that previous studies have found that improved condom availability and accessibility in high risk places have a potential to increase condom use among people with multiple partners, the present study findings indicate that substantial further efforts should be made to secure that condoms are easily accessible in places where sexual relationships are initiated. Although condom distribution in drinking places has been pinpointed in the HIV/AIDS prevention strategies of all the three countries, its priority relative to other HIV/AIDS measures must be reassessed locally, nationally and regionally. In practical terms very clear supply chains of condoms to both formal and informal drinking places could make condom provision better and more reliable.

Experiences of teachers and community health workers implementing sexuality and life skills education in youth clubs in Zambia.

Zambia, like other low- and middle-income countries, faces numerous adolescent sexual and reproductive health challenges such as teenage pregnancies. This study aimed at understanding teachers' and community health workers' (CHWs) implementation of comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) as part of a comprehensive support package for adolescent girls to prevent early childbearing. Data collected using in-depth interviews [n = 28] with teachers [n = 15] and community health workers [n = 13] were analysed using thematic analysis. The teachers and CHWs reported that the use of participatory approaches and collaboration between them in implementing CSE enabled them to increase girls' and boys' participation youth clubs. However, some teachers and CHWs experienced practical challenges with the manuals because some concepts were difficult to understand and translate into local language. The participants perceived that the youth club increased knowledge on CSE, assertiveness and self-esteem among the learners. Training and providing a detailed teaching manual with participatory approaches for delivering CSE, and collaborative teaching enabled teachers and CHWs to easily communicate sensitive SRH topics to the learners. However, for the adoption of CSE to be even more successful, piloting of the curriculum with local facilitators and translating the manuals into the local languages before they are implemented, is recommended.

Effects of economic support, comprehensive sexuality education and community dialogue on sexual behaviour: Findings from a cluster-RCT among adolescent girls in rural Zambia.

Adolescent girls in Sub-Saharan Africa are at high risk of poor sexual and reproductive health outcomes. We present findings from a cluster-randomised trial in rural Zambia on the effects of economic support, comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) and community dialogue on sexual activity, contraceptive use and beliefs among adolescent girls. We recruited 157 schools in 2016, and all girls in grade 7 were invited to participate. Schools were randomised to either economic support, combined economic support, CSE and community dialogue, or control. Economic support consisted of unconditional cash transfers to girls and their guardians, and payment of school fees for girls continuing to grades eight and nine. CSE and community dialogue meetings focused on practices around girls' fertility, marriage and education. The interventions lasted two years from 2016 to 2018, with follow-up for another two years. The effects on outcomes were measured in 2018 and 2019 and compared using generalised estimating equations. We found that economic support lowered sexual activity (risk ratio (RR) 0.70; 95% C.I. 0.54 to 0.91), with a small added benefit of CSE and community dialogue. Economic support and the additional CSE and community dialogue were effective in lowering unprotected sexual activity (RR 0.53 for combined support vs. control; 95% C.I. 0.37 to 0.75). There was no evidence of intervention effects on contraceptive use among those ever sexually active, but the addition of CSE and community dialogue improved contraceptive use among those recently sexually active (RR 1.26; 95% C.I. 1.06 to 1.50) and knowledge regarding contraceptives (RR 1.18; 95% C.I. 1.01 to 1.38) compared to economic support alone. Perceived community support regarding contraceptives was lower in both intervention arms compared to the control. These findings indicate that economic support in combination with CSE and community dialogue can improve the sexual and reproductive health of adolescent girls.

Acceptability of an economic support component to reduce early pregnancy and school dropout in Zambia: a qualitative case study.

Background: Cash Transfer (CT) schemes have become popular poverty reducing measures in many low and middle-income countries. Research indicates that when provided to girls in resource poor settings, cash transfers can increase education and postpone marriage and pregnancy. However, a few studies indicate that they can also have negative effects which can affect their acceptability, such as generating intra-community tensions.Objective: Conceptually informed by Rogers' diffusion of innovation theory, this paper explores factors affecting the acceptability of economic support in a randomized controlled trial in rural Monze and Pemba Districts of Southern Province in Zambia.Methods: Qualitative data were collected through five focus group discussions and six in-depth, semi-structured interviews and analysed using thematic analysis. This study was done in the combined arm of a trial where girls received both economic support and participated in youth clubs offering sexuality and life-skills education.Results: In the study communities, acceptability was encouraging by the belief that economic support provided benefits beyond beneficiaries and that it improved access to education, and reduced teen pregnancies, marriages and school drop-out. However, provision of economic support only to selected girls and their parents and fear among some that the support was linked to satanic practices negatively affected acceptability. These fears were mitigated through community sensitisations.Conclusion: The study demonstrated that relative advantage, observability, simplicity and compatibility were key factors in influencing acceptability of the economic support. However, to enhance acceptability of cash transfer schemes aimed at addressing early marriage and pregnancy, it is important to explore socio-cultural factors that create suspicions and negative perceptions and to provide schemes that are perceived as relatively better than available similar schemes, understood, compatible and viable beyond the immediate beneficiary.

"Now that you are circumcised, you cannot have first sex with your wife": post circumcision sexual behaviours and beliefs among men in Wakiso district, Uganda.

INTRODUCTION: Safe male circumcision is an important biomedical intervention in the comprehensive HIV prevention programmes implemented in 14 sub-Saharan African countries with high HIV prevalence. To sustain its partial protective benefit, it is important that perceived reduced HIV risk does not lead to behavioural risk compensation among circumcised men and their sexual partners. This study explored beliefs that may influence post circumcision sexual behaviours among circumcised men in a programme setting. METHODS: Forty-eight in-depth interviews were conducted with newly circumcised men in Wakiso district, central Uganda. Twenty-five men seeking circumcision services at public health facilities in the district were recruited from May to June 2015 and, interviewed at baseline and after 6 months. Participants' beliefs and sexual behaviours were compared just after circumcision and at follow up to explore changes. Data were managed using atlas.ti7 and analysed following a thematic network analysis framework. RESULTS: Four themes following safe male circumcision emerged from this study. Beliefs related to: (1) sexual cleansing, (2) healing, (3) post SMC sexual capabilities and (4) continued HIV transmission risk. Most men maintained or adopted safer sexual behaviour; being faithful to their partner after circumcision or using condoms with extramarital partners following the knowledge that there was continued HIV risk post circumcision. The most prevalent risky belief was regarding sexual cleansing post circumcision, and as a result of this belief, some men had one off condom-less sexual intercourse with a casual partner. Some resumed sex before the recommended period due to misunderstanding of what comprised healing. CONCLUSIONS: Although most men maintained or adopted safer sexual behaviour, there were instances of risky sexual behaviour resulting from beliefs regarding the first sexual intercourse after circumcision or misunderstandings of what comprised wound healing. If not addressed, these may attenuate the safe male circumcision benefits of risk reduction for HIV.