How does accounting for worker productivity affect the measured cost-effectiveness of lumbar discectomy?

BACKGROUND: Back pain attributable to lumbar disc herniation is a substantial cause of reduced workplace productivity. Disc herniation surgery is effective in reducing pain and improving function. However, few studies have examined the effects of surgery on worker productivity. QUESTIONS/PURPOSES: We wished to determine the effect of disc herniation surgery on workers' earnings and missed workdays and how accounting for this effect influences the cost-effectiveness of surgery? METHODS: Regression models were estimated using data from the National Health Interview Survey to assess the effects of lower back pain caused by disc herniation on earnings and missed workdays. The results were incorporated into Markov models to compare societal costs associated with surgical and nonsurgical treatments for privately insured, working patients. Clinical outcomes and utilities were based on results from the Spine Patient Outcomes Research Trial and additional clinical literature. RESULTS: We estimate average annual earnings of $47,619 with surgery and $45,694 with nonsurgical treatment. The increased earnings for patients receiving surgery as compared with nonsurgical treatment is equal to $1925 (95% CI, $1121-$2728). After surgery, we also estimate that workers receiving surgery miss, on average, 3 fewer days per year than if workers had received nonsurgical treatment (95% CI, 2.4-3.7 days). However, these fewer missed work days only partially offset the assumed 20 workdays missed to recover from surgery. More fully accounting for the effects of disc herniation surgery on productivity reduced the cost of surgery per quality-adjusted life year (QALY) from $52,416 to $35,146 using a 4-year time horizon and from $27,359 to $4186 using an 8-year time horizon. According to a sensitivity analysis, the 4-year cost per QALY varies between $27,921 and $49,787 depending on model assumptions. CONCLUSIONS: Increased worker earnings resulting from disc herniation surgery may offset the increased direct medical costs associated with surgery. After accounting for the effects on productivity, disc herniation surgery was found to be a highly cost-effective surgery and may yield net societal savings if the benefits of outpatient and inpatient surgery persist beyond 6 and 12 years, respectively. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II, economic and decision analysis. See the Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Driving after orthopaedic surgery.

The decision to drive after orthopaedic injury or surgery is fraught with legal and safety issues. Although driving is an important part of most patients' lives, there are no well-established guidelines for determining when it is safe to drive after injury or treatment. Typically, impairment in driving ability is measured by changes in the time needed to perform an emergency stop. Braking function returns to normal 4 weeks after knee arthroscopy, 9 weeks after surgical management of ankle fracture, and 6 weeks after the initiation of weight bearing following major lower extremity fracture. Patients may safely drive 4 to 6 weeks after right total hip arthroplasty or total knee arthroplasty. Patients should not drive with a cast or brace on the right leg. Upper extremity immobilization may cause significant impairment if the elbow is immobilized; however, simple forearm casts may be permissible.

Ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction in elite throwing athletes.

PURPOSE: Ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) injuries may result in disabling valgus instability in throwing athletes. We evaluated the docking technique for UCL reconstruction and describe a modification to the technique. METHODS: UCL surgery was indicated in 20 high-level baseball players (13 professional and 7 collegiate) based on medial elbow pain preventing effective throwing, clinically apparent medial elbow laxity, and magnetic resonance arthrogram consistent with UCL injury. The mean age was 21.7 years (range, 17.9 to 25.3 years). One patient had previous UCL reconstruction. One had previous arthroscopic elbow debridement. The mean time between injury and treatment was 73 days. Reconstruction was performed via a muscle-splitting approach and the docking technique with palmaris or gracilis graft. For the initial 12 patients, a 2-strand construct was used; however, during the study period, we developed and began using a 3-strand construct with a double anterior bundle and a single posterior bundle, which was used in the next 8 patients. The ulnar nerve was not routinely transposed unless there were preoperative ulnar nerve symptoms (1 patient). Two patients had osteophyte debridement. One had removal of a loose body. RESULTS: Patients were followed up for a mean of 41.9 months (range, 6.4 to 67.1 months). One player was lost to follow-up and could not be identified on a professional roster. Of the remaining 19 patients, 18 returned to their previous level of participation or higher. Two were occasional pitchers who did not wish to return to pitching but continued to play other positions. They were clinically and functionally asymptomatic. The mean time to return to play was 13.1 months (range, 6.3 to 21.3 months). By use of the Timmerman-Andrews 100-point subjective scoring system, the mean preoperative score was 77.0 (range, 65 to 80) and the mean postoperative score was 98.2 (range, 85 to 100). By use of the Conway-Jobe scoring system, the outcome was rated as excellent in 17 patients and good in 2. One patient underwent subsequent ulnar nerve transposition and returned to the previous level of professional play. CONCLUSIONS: UCL reconstruction with the docking technique is a reproducible and safe operation that can reliably return athletes to a high level of participation with limited adverse effects. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, therapeutic case series.

Infraspinatus muscle atrophy in professional baseball players.

BACKGROUND: Infraspinatus muscle atrophy has been observed in athletes who stress their upper extremities in an overhead fashion. The majority of such case reports have been in volleyball players, with far fewer cases reported in baseball players. HYPOTHESIS: Infraspinatus muscle atrophy occurs to a notable degree in professional baseball players. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. METHODS: At the end of the 1999 baseball season, data were collected from all Major League Baseball teams in regards to players affected with infraspinatus muscle atrophy. RESULTS: Twelve of the 1491 major league professional baseball players were identified as having appreciable infraspinatus muscle atrophy. There was an increased prevalence of the muscle atrophy in professional pitchers (10 of 494, 4%) compared to position players (2 of 997, 0.2%) (P <0.001). Among affected pitchers, the atrophy was identified more frequently in starting pitchers (8 of 10) compared to relief pitchers (2 of 10) (P = 0.036), pitchers who had played for more years at the major league level (8.7 +/- 4.9 versus 5.2 +/- 4.0) (P = 0.017), and pitchers who had thrown for more innings at the major league level (971.4 +/- 784.4 versus 485.0 +/- 594.6) (P <0.001). CONCLUSION: Infraspinatus atrophy was identified in 4.4% of major league starting pitchers and occurred in those pitchers who pitched for more years and innings during their major league career.

The implementation and efficacy of the Northwestern High Risk Spine Protocol.

OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study were to determine the efficacy and feasibility of implementation of the intraoperative component of a high risk spine (HRS) protocol for improving perioperative patient safety in complex spine fusion surgery. METHODS: In this paired availability study, the total number of red blood cell units transfused was used as a surrogate marker for our management protocol efficacy, and the number of protocol violations was used as a surrogate marker for protocol compliance. RESULTS: The 548 patients (284 traditional vs. 264 HRS protocol) were comparable in all demographics, coexisting diseases, preoperative medications, type of surgery, and number of posterior levels instrumented. However, the surgical duration was 70 minutes shorter in the new group (range, 32-108 minutes shorter; P < 0.0001) and the new protocol patients received a median of 1.1 units less of total red blood cell units (range, 0-2.4 units less; P = 0.006). There were only 7 (2.6%) protocol violations in the new protocol group. CONCLUSIONS: The intraoperative component of the HRS protocol, based on two Do-Confirm checklists that focused on 1) organized communication between intraoperative team members and 2) active maintenance of oxygen delivery and hemostasis appears to maintain a safe intraoperative environment and was readily implemented during a 3-year period.

Case report of an abscess developing at the site of a hematoma following a direct lateral interbody fusion.

BACKGROUND CONTEXT: A direct lateral interbody fusion (DLIF) is relatively new, yet commonly performed procedure in spine surgery. This procedure is associated with risk, including damage to nerve or vascular structures. However, to our knowledge, there has not been a case of an abscess developing at the site of a postoperative hematoma after this procedure. PURPOSE: The objective was to document a case of the delayed presentation of an abscess at the site of a postoperative hematoma after a DLIF. STUDY DESIGN/SETTING: The study was designed to be a case report and literature review. METHODS: We present a case of a 63-year-old patient who developed a large retroperitoneal hematoma after an L2-L5 DLIF. The patient developed a postoperative urinary tract infection with cultures positive for Pseudomonas. The infection was treated with oral antibiotics. Eight months after her procedure, the patient was found to have developed an abscess (measuring 11.6 × 8.4 × 10.0 cm) at the site of the prior hematoma. RESULTS: After radiological-guided aspiration and a 2-week course of oral antibiotics, the abscess resolved and the patient recovered with no sequelae. CONCLUSION: Direct lateral interbody fusion is a minimally invasive procedure that may result in postoperative hematoma formation. We have reported a case of the development of an abscess at the site of a postoperative hematoma.

The Professional Athlete Spine Initiative: outcomes after lumbar disc herniation in 342 elite professional athletes.

BACKGROUND CONTEXT: Although clinical outcomes after lumbar disc herniations (LDHs) in the general population have been well studied, those in elite professional athletes have not. Because these athletes have different measures of success, studies on long-term outcomes in this patient population are necessary. PURPOSE: This study seeks to define the outcomes after an LDH in a large cohort of professional athletes of American football, baseball, hockey, and basketball. STUDY DESIGN/SETTING: Retrospective cohort study. PATIENT SAMPLE: A total of 342 professional athletes from four major North American sports from 1972 to 2008 diagnosed with an LDH were identified via a previously published protocol. Two hundred twenty-six players underwent lumbar discectomy, and 116 athletes were treated nonoperatively. Only those players who had at least 2 years of follow-up were included. OUTCOME MEASURES: Functional outcome measures as defined by successful return-to-play (RTP), career games, and years played for each player cohort were recorded both before and after treatment. Conversion factors based on games/regular season and expected career length (based on individual sport) were used to standardize the outcomes across each sport. METHODS: Using Statistical Analysis Software v. 9.1, outcome measures were compared in each cohort both before and after treatment using linear and mixed regression analyses and Cox proportional hazards models. A Kaplan-Meier survivorship curve was calculated for career length after injury. Statistical significance was defined as p<.05. RESULTS: After the diagnosis of an LDH, professional athletes successfully returned to sport 82% of the time, with an average career length of 3.4 years. Of the 226 patients who underwent surgical treatment, 184 successfully returned to play (81%), on average, for 3.3 years after surgery. Survivorship analysis demonstrated that 62.3% of players were expected to remain active 2 years after diagnosis. There were no statistically significant differences in outcome in the surgical and nonoperative cohorts. Age at diagnosis was a negative predictor of career length after injury, whereas games played before injury had a positive effect on outcome after injury. Major League Baseball (MLB) players demonstrated a significantly higher RTP rate than those of other sports, and conversely, National Football League (NFL) athletes had a lower RTP rate than players of other sports (p<.05). However, the greatest positive treatment effect from surgery for LDH was seen in NFL players, whereas for MLB athletes, a lumbar discectomy led to a shorter career compared with the nonoperative cohort (p<.05). CONCLUSIONS: Professional athletes diagnosed with an LDH successfully returned to play at a high rate with productive careers after injury. Whereas older athletes have a shorter career length after diagnosis of LDH, experienced players (high number of games played) demonstrate more games played after treatment than inexperienced athletes. Notably, surgical treatment in baseball players led to significantly shorter careers, whereas for NFL athletes, posttreatment careers were longer than those of the corresponding nonoperative cohort. The explanation for this is likely multifactorial, including the age at diagnosis, respective contractual obligations, and different physical demands imposed by each individual professional sport.

Standardizing care for high-risk patients in spine surgery: the Northwestern high-risk spine protocol.

STUDY DESIGN: Review article of current literature on the preoperative evaluation and postoperative management of patients undergoing high-risk spine operations and a presentation of a multidisciplinary protocol for patients undergoing high-risk spine operation. OBJECTIVE: To provide evidence-based outline of modifiable risk factors and give an example of a multidisciplinary protocol with the goal of improving outcomes. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Protocol-based care has been shown to improve outcomes in many areas of medicine. A protocol to evaluate patients undergoing high-risk procedures may ultimately improve patient outcomes. METHODS: The English language literature to date was reviewed on modifiable risk factors for spine surgery. A multidisciplinary team including hospitalists, critical care physicians, anesthesiologists, and spine surgeons from neurosurgery and orthopedics established an institutional protocol to provide comprehensive care in the pre-, peri-, and postoperative periods for patients undergoing high-risk spine operations. RESULTS: An example of a comprehensive pre-, peri-, and postoperative high-risk spine protocol is provided, with focus on the preoperative assessment of patients undergoing high-risk spine operations and modifiable risk factors. CONCLUSION: Standardizing preoperative risk assessment may lead to better outcomes after major spine operations. A high-risk spine protocol may help patients by having dedicated physicians in multiple specialties focusing on all aspects of a patients care in the pre-, intra-, and postoperative phases.

Delayed epidural hematoma after spinal surgery: a report of 4 cases.

Symptomatic postoperative epidural hematoma is a rare and potentially devastating complication of spinal surgery. The overwhelming majority of reported cases have occurred in the immediate postoperative period. A recent publication defined the clinical entity of delayed postoperative epidural spinal hematoma as neurologic deterioration due to an epidural hematoma occurring at least 3 days after the index procedure. Only 2 such cases have been reported in the lumbar spine to date. Four cases of delayed postoperative spinal epidural hematoma were identified over a 6-year period among the spine surgeons at a single large academic institution. Each case involved the lumbar spine. The details of each patient's initial surgery, presentation, and hospital course were then gathered from a retrospective chart review. The 4 patients presented are unusual in their delayed symptomatic presentations of postoperative spinal epidural hematoma. Despite the longer time to onset, however, our patients exhibited many of the characteristics common to cases that presented in the acute postoperative period. The spine surgeon must remain vigilant for the possibility of postoperative spinal epidural hematoma in at-risk patients, even weeks after the original surgical procedure.

Muscle flap salvage of spine wounds with soft tissue defects or infection.

STUDY DESIGN: This retrospective study was designed to analyze the results of 22 patients treated for postoperative soft tissue defects of the spine. OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate the utility of flaps in the salvage of spine wounds. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: In the literature, the treatment of postoperative spine infections is with serial débridement, antibiotic irrigation catheters, drains, and occasional removal of spinal implants. Muscle flaps have received scant mention in the surgical literature for spine coverage. METHODS: Group 1 (n = 15) had postoperative wound infections or dehiscences. Group 2 (n = 7) had "prophylactic" flaps at the time of their initial spine surgery. The indications for "prophylactic" closure included multiple prior surgeries, prior infection, and previous radiation therapy. Group 1 was treated with drainage, dressing changes, and one-stage flap closure of their wounds. Sliding paraspinal muscle flaps were the flaps of choice. Group 2 was treated with a variety of closure techniques at the time of their initial surgery. RESULTS: The average defect size was 10 vertebral bodies long. Despite the large defect size, 19 of 20 surviving patients currently have healed wounds, and all the patients have maintained their instrumentation. Two patients died of causes unrelated to their wound problems. A Group 1 patient with complete loss of a superior gluteal artery flap was salvaged with a contralateral gluteus muscle flap. Another Group 1 patient has intermittent drainage from under a trapezius flap, which covers a cervical spine fusion. Four patients had minor wound complications. CONCLUSIONS: Flaps are a useful adjunct in the treatment of patients with complex spine wounds. Sliding paraspinal muscle flaps can effectively close wounds from the high cervical to the low lumbar area in one operative procedure. These patients can go on to successful spine fusion.