Chronic hepatitis delta virus infection leads to functional impairment and severe loss of MAIT cells.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Hepatitis delta virus (HDV) infection is the most severe form of viral hepatitis. Although HDV-associated liver disease is considered immune-mediated, adaptive immune responses against HDV are weak. Thus, the role of several other cell-mediated mechanisms such as those driven by mucosa-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, a group of innate-like T cells highly enriched in the human liver, has not been extensively studied in clinical HDV infection. METHODS: MAIT cells from a sizeable cohort of patients with chronic HDV were analyzed ex vivo and in vitro after stimulation. Results were compared with MAIT cells from hepatitis B virus (HBV) monoinfected patients and healthy controls. RESULTS: Circulating MAIT cells were dramatically decreased in the peripheral blood of HDV-infected patients. Signs of decline were also observed in the liver. In contrast, only a modest decrease of circulating MAIT cells was noted in HBV monoinfection. Unsupervised high-dimensional analysis of residual circulating MAIT cells in chronic HDV infection revealed the appearance of a compound phenotype of CD38hiPD-1hiCD28loCD127loPLZFloEomesloHelioslo cells indicative of activation. Corroborating these results, MAIT cells exhibited a functionally impaired responsiveness. In parallel to MAIT cell loss, HDV-infected patients exhibited signs of monocyte activation and increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines IL-12 and IL-18. In vitro, IL-12 and IL-18 induced an activated MAIT cell phenotype similar to the one observed ex vivo in HDV-infected patients. These cytokines also promoted MAIT cell death, suggesting that they may contribute to MAIT cell activation and subsequent loss during HDV infection. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that chronic HDV infection engages the MAIT cell compartment causing activation, functional impairment, and subsequent progressive loss of MAIT cells as the HDV-associated liver disease progresses. LAY SUMMARY: Hepatitis delta virus (HDV) infection is the most severe form of viral hepatitis. We found that in patients with HDV, a subset of innate-like T cells called mucosa-associated invariant T cells (or MAIT cells), which are normally abundant in peripheral blood and the liver, are activated, functionally impaired and severely depleted.

The Third Signal Cytokine Interleukin 12 Rather Than Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors Contributes to the Functional Restoration of Hepatitis D Virus-Specific T Cells.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis D virus (HDV) infection affects 15-20 million individuals worldwide and causes severely progressive hepatitis. It is unknown to what extent cellular immune responses contribute to liver disease and control of viral replication in HDV infection. METHODS: Immune cell frequencies and phenotypes were determined in 49 HDV-infected patients, 25 individuals with hepatitis B virus monoinfection and 18 healthy controls. T-cell proliferative and cytokine-producing capacities were analyzed by stimulation with overlapping peptides spanning the large HDV antigen. To restore T-cell responses, blocking antibodies (anti-cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4, anti-programmed death ligand 1) or proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin [IL] 12) were used. RESULTS: Immune cell frequencies and phenotypes did not vary between the groups. Exclusively, the senescence marker CD57 was significantly up-regulated in CD8+ T cells from patients with hepatitis delta. HDV-specific T-cell proliferation and cytokine production were weak and could only partly be rescued by blockade of the programmed death 1 pathway. However, a more robust and consistent increase in HDV-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses was evident when the third signal cytokine IL-12 was added, which also affected cytomegalovirus- and Epstein-Barr virus-specific T cells. CONCLUSIONS: This investigation of virus-specific T-cell immunity in patients with HDV infection, the largest to date, revealed premature aging of immune cells and impaired T-cell functionality. This could be restored by blocking inhibitory pathways and, in particular, by supplementing with IL-12.

A screening assay for the identification of host cell requirements and antiviral targets for hepatitis D virus infection.

Hepatitis delta virus (HDV) is a minimalistic satellite virus of hepatitis B virus (HBV). HBV/HDV co-infection, i.e. "hepatitis D", is the most severe form of viral hepatitis. No effective therapy for HDV infection is available partly due to the fact that HDV is a highly host-dependent virus devoid of any potentially drugable enzyme encoded in its small genome. In this study we present a semi-automated method to evaluate HDV infection and replication under the influence of different drugs. We utilized a Huh-7/hNTCP cell culture based system in a 96-well plate format, an automated microscope and image acquisition as well as analysis with the CellProfiler software to quantify the impact of these drugs on HDV infection. For validation, three groups of potential anti-HDV agents were evaluated: To target ribozyme activity of HDV RNA, we screened ribozyme inhibitors but only observed marked toxicity. Testing innate antiviral mediators showed that interferons alpha-2a and beta-1a had a specific inhibitory effect on HDV infection. Finally, we screened a library of 160 human kinase inhibitors covering all parts of the human kinome. Overall, only inhibitors targeting the tyrosine kinase-like group had significant average anti-HDV activity. Looking at individual substances, kenpaullone, a GSK-3ß and Cdk inhibitor, had the highest selective index of 3.44. Thus, we provide a potentially useful tool to screen for substances with anti-HDV activity and novel insights into interactions between HDV replication and the human kinome.