Abandon of intramuscular administration of rabies immunoglobulin for post-exposure prophylaxis in the revised guidelines in the Netherlands in 2018: cost and volume savings.

The World Health Organization (WHO) issued an updated position paper on rabies in 2018, mainly focusing on simplification of vaccination schedules and use of rabies immunoglobulin (RIG). The maximum amount of RIG anatomically feasible should be infiltrated exclusively in and around the wound and will no longer be calculated solely based on body weight. We describe the practical guideline implementing the revised RIG policy in the Netherlands on how to determine the amount of RIG for local administration. We calculated savings achieved through the revised WHO policy. We used information from a national database including rabies consultations in the Netherlands and clinical information from a public health service, clinical practitioners and national data on the amount of distributed RIG. Between 2008 and 2019, 5,164 consultations were registered. The most frequently affected anatomical location was hand or leg (43%). Around 80% concerned minor injuries (< 2 cm). From January 2016 to end December 2019, 7,361 mL RIG were distributed for 1,042 possible rabies exposures (EUR 1.4 million). Since implementing the revised policy, the amount of RIG distributed per order has sharply decreased (59%). Infiltrating RIG only locally saved large quantities of human RIG (EUR 1.1 million during 4 years) in the Netherlands.

[Influenza vaccination from this autumn for all pregnant women: less influenza infections among neonates and pregnant women]. / Vanaf dit najaar griepvaccinatie voor álle zwangeren.

Both pregnant women and their newborns have a higher risk to be admitted to hospital because of complications of an influenza infection. Especially newborns under six months of age are at an increased risk to be admitted with complications of an influenza infection. In pregnant women, hospital admittance in case of influenza infection is two to threefold increased as compared to non-pregnant women. Vaccination against influenza infection is a safe and effective method to decrease the morbidity of influenza infections in pregnant women and their newborns. Starting in 2023, all pregnant women in the Netherlands will be offered influenza vaccination. It is important to take care of good acceptation of influenza vaccination amongst pregnant women. Good education of healthcare providers and good counseling of pregnant women is necessary to optimize the uptake of influenza vaccination.

The contribution of adult attachment and perceived social support to depressive symptoms in patients with HIV.

The present study investigated the relationship between adult attachment style and depressive symptomatology in patients with HIV. Moreover, perceived social support was investigated as a potential mediator between adult attachment and depressive symptoms. A sample of 233 HIV-infected patients (90% male) completed questionnaires assessing adult attachment style (Relationship Questionnaire), depressive symptoms (Beck Depression Inventory), and perceived social support (Medical Outcomes Study Social Support Survey). After controlling for demographic and medical variables, an insecure adult attachment style was found to be strongly related with depressive symptoms. Half of the insecurely attached patients reported clinically elevated levels of distress, while one in nine securely attached patients reported elevated levels of distress (χ(2)=32.25, p=0.001). Moreover, the association between attachment style and depressive symptomatology was found to be partly mediated through perceived social support. This study strongly supports the notion that an insecure attachment style is a vulnerability factor for developing depressive symptoms that would warrant clinical attention when confronted with a chronic illness such as HIV. The clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Current practices of partner notification among MSM with HIV, gonorrhoea and syphilis in the Netherlands: an urgent need for improvement.

BACKGROUND: Partner notification (PN) among individuals newly diagnosed with HIV/STI is seen as a vital tool to identify others at risk of infection. However, hardly any data are available on the effectiveness of PN on HIV/STI transmission in the Netherlands. This study aims to fill this gap by assessing current PN practices, case-finding effectiveness, and determinants of being notified among men having sex with men (MSM) in the Netherlands. METHODS: Nurses from five STI centers participated in a prospective pilot study on PN outcomes (partners being: at risk, notifiable, notified, and tested) for HIV/STI, by completing a newly developed PN registration form (PN database). PN outcomes including case-finding effectiveness (number of newly diagnosed cases in partners/number of partners being tested) for HIV, syphilis, and gonorrhoea were studied among MSM. Furthermore, the national STI database was analyzed to identify determinants of being notified. The number of infections that remained undetected was estimated based on these two databases. RESULTS: In total 105 MSM, newly diagnosed with HIV/STI, reported 612 sexual partners at risk of whom 41% were notifiable and 31% were notified. Patient referral was the predominant PN method (90%). The overall case-finding percentage was 36% (HIV: 15-33%, gonorrhoea: 17-50% and syphilis: 4-11%). Case-finding percentages were lower in the national STI database: 21% (5%, 28%, 12%). Persons with one or more sexual partners, known HIV positives, and IDU were more likely to be notified to the STI clinic. Notified clients were more likely to have HIV/STI than unnotified clients (OR 1.7-2.5). Based on these two databases, an estimated 75 to 133 infections remained undetected (HIV: 12-90; gonorrhoea: 28-97; syphilis: 5-12 infections). CONCLUSIONS: Partner notification among MSM in the Netherlands is suboptimal; an extensive number of STI/HIV infections remained undetected mainly due to unnotifiable partners. To enhance PN practices, combined and innovative PN interventions such as Internet-based PN will be implemented for hard-to-reach MSM and other risk groups.

Influenza vaccination of school teachers: A scoping review and an impact estimation.

INTRODUCTION: Influenza vaccination, besides protecting traditional risk groups, can protect employees and reduce illness-related absence, which is especially relevant in sectors with staff shortages. This study describes current knowledge of influenza vaccination in teachers and estimates its potential impact. METHODS: We conducted a scoping review of the considerations for and impact of influenza vaccination of schoolteachers (grey and scientific literature up to 2020 March, complemented with interviews). We then estimated the potential impact of teacher vaccination in the Netherlands, with different scenarios of vaccine uptake for 3 influenza seasons (2016-2019). Using published data on multiple input parameters, we calculated potentially averted absenteeism notifications, averted absenteeism duration and averted doctor visits for influenza. RESULTS: Only one scientific paper reported on impact; it showed lower absenteeism in vaccinated teachers, whereas more knowledge of vaccination impact was deemed crucial by 50% of interviewed experts. The impact for the Netherlands of a hypothetical 50% vaccine uptake was subsequently estimated: 74-293 potentially averted physician visits and 11,178-28,896 potentially averted days of influenza absenteeism (on ≈200,000 total teacher population). An estimated 12-32 vaccinations were required to prevent one teacher sick-leave notification, or 3.5-9.1 vaccinations to prevent one day of teacher absenteeism (2016-2019). CONCLUSION: Scientific publications on influenza vaccination in teachers are few, while public interest has increased to reduce teacher shortages. However, school boards and public health experts indicate requiring knowledge of impact when considering this vaccination. Estimations of 3.5-9.1 vaccinated teachers preventing one day of influenza-related sick leave suggest a possible substantial vaccination impact on absenteeism. Financial incentives, more accessible on-site vaccinations at workplaces, or both, are expected to increase uptake, but more research is needed on teachers' views and vaccine uptake potential and its cost-effectiveness. Piloting free on-site influenza vaccination in several schools could provide further information on teacher participation.

Low HIV testing rates among tuberculosis patients in Kampala, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: HIV testing among tuberculosis patients is critical in improving morbidity and mortality as those found to be HIV positive will be offered a continuum of care including ART if indicated. We conducted a cross-sectional study in three Kampala City primary care clinics: to assess the level of HIV test uptake among newly diagnosed pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) patients; to assess patient and health worker factors associated with HIV test uptake; and to determine factors associated with HIV test uptake at the primary care clinics METHODS: Adult patients who had been diagnosed with smear-positive PTB at a primary care clinic or at the referral hospital and who were being treated at any of the three clinics were interviewed. Associations between having taken the test as the main outcome and explanatory variables were assessed by multivariate logistic regression. RESULTS: Between April and October 2007, 112 adults were included in the study. An HIV test had been offered to 74 (66%). Of the 112 patients, 61 (82%) had accepted the test; 45 (74%) had eventually been tested; and 32 (29%) had received their test results.Patients who were <25 yeas old, female or unemployed, or had reported no previous HIV testing, were more likely to have been tested. The strongest predictor of having been tested was if patients had been diagnosed at the referral hospital compared to the city clinic (adjusted OR 24.2; 95% CI 6.7-87.7; p < 0.001). This primarily reflected an "opt-out" (uptake 94%) versus an "opt-in" (uptake 53%) testing policy. CONCLUSIONS: The overall HIV test uptake was surprisingly low at 40%. The HIV test uptake was significantly higher among TB patients who were identified at hospital, among females and in the unemployed.

Seroprevalence of HIV, hepatitis b, and hepatitis c among opioid drug users on methadone treatment in the netherlands.

BACKGROUND: Injecting drug users (IDU) remain an important population at risk for blood-borne infections such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV). In the Netherlands, a program is being implemented to offer annual voluntary screening for these infections to opioid drug users (ODUs) screened in methadone care. At two care sites where the program is now operating, our study aimed to estimate the seroprevalence among ODUs screened for HIV, HBV and HCV; to evaluate HBV vaccination coverage; and to assess the feasibility of monitoring seroprevalence trends by using routine annual screening data. METHODS: Opioid drug users on methadone treatment are routinely offered voluntary screening for infectious diseases such as HIV, HBV and HCV. Data on uptake and outcome of anti-HIV, anti-HBc, and anti-HCV screening among ODUs receiving methadone were obtained from two regions: Amsterdam from 2004 to 2008 and Heerlen from 2003 to 2009. FINDINGS: Annual screening uptake for HIV, HBV and HCV varied from 34 to 69%, depending on disease and screening site. Of users screened, 2.5% were HIV-positive in Amsterdam and 11% in Heerlen; 26% were HCV-positive in Amsterdam and 61% in Heerlen. Of those screened for HBV, evidence of current or previous infection (anti-HBc) was found among 33% in Amsterdam and 48% in Heerlen. In Amsterdam, 92% were fully vaccinated for HBV versus 45% in Heerlen. CONCLUSION: Annual screening for infectious diseases in all ODUs in methadone care is not fully implemented in the Netherlands. On average, more than half of the ODUs in methadone care in Heerlen and Amsterdam were screened for HIV, HBV and HCV. In addition, screening data indicate that HBV vaccination uptake was rather high. While the HIV prevalence among these ODUs was relatively low compared to other drug-using populations, the high HCV prevalence among this group underscores the need to expand annual screening and interventions to monitor HIV, HBV and HCV in the opioid drug-using population.

[Revised prevention strategies for persons with (functional) hypo- or asplenie]. / Aangepast preventiebeleid bij patiënten met hyposplenie of asplenie.

The Dutch guideline for the preventions of infections in persons with (functional) hypo- or asplenie has been revised, recommending adjustments for the use of vaccinations and antibiotics. The spleen has an important function in the defence against infections. Around 1,000 splenectomies are performed in the Netherlands every year. Three different groups of patients are distinguished: (a) persons with a partially or completely removed spleen after surgery or embolization; (b) persons with congenital asplenia; and (c) a heterogeneous group of patients, who may have functional hyposplenie or asplenia due to an underlying condition or specific treatments. Patients with asplenia have an increased risk of severe infections by encapsulated bacteria, including in particular Streptococcus pneumoniae, but also Haemophilus influenzae type b and Neisseria meningitides may lead to an increased risk S.pneumoniae causes up to 90% of the infections, which makes it the most important infectious agent in patients with asplenia. A number of preventive measures are recommended to prevent infections in patients with hypo- or asplenie, including the use of vaccinations and antibiotics and patient counselling.

[Revision of the rabies policy in the Netherlands]. / Gewijzigde Nederlandse rabiësrichtlijnen.

Revision of the rabies policy in the Netherlands The WHO aims to eliminate dog-transmitted rabies deaths in humans by 2030 ('zero by 30'). The Dutch rabies policy advisory board has revised its national rabies guidelines on the basis of the WHO guidelines revised in 2018. In the revised Dutch guidelines, there is increased focus on the importance of instant wound care after potential exposure to the rabies virus. Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is limited to two vaccines given on days 0 and 7, rather than the previous regime of three vaccines. Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) no longer consists of five vaccines for unvaccinated individuals; instead it is four vaccines on days 0, 3, 7, and 14-28. For type III wounds, when indicated, rabies immunoglobulin (RIG) is only injected into and around the wound bed; residual volumes are no longer administered intramuscularly. RIG no longer needs to be administered in cases of potential mucosal contact exposure to the rabies virus where there is no injury. The vaccination scheme for PrEP (3) and PEP (5) does not change for immunocompromised patients, and RIG is administered regardless of the vaccination status of the affected individual.

Influenza vaccination in adult patients with solid tumours treated with chemotherapy.

Patients with solid tumours receiving chemotherapy are at risk for influenza complications. Yearly influenza vaccination is recommended to patients treated with chemotherapy. However, adherence to vaccination is low, most likely due to lack of data on efficacy, optimal timing and safety of vaccination. There is scarce evidence for the effectiveness of the influenza vaccine in adult patients with solid tumours and chemotherapy on reduction of pneumonia, decreased mortality and fewer interruptions of oncological treatment. A review of 20 non-randomised serological studies in adult patients with different cancer types and chemotherapy provides insight in general trends of response to vaccination. Overall, the magnitude of the antibody response after influenza vaccination (i.e. seroconversion) can be lower than in healthy controls, but the majority of patients with solid tumours is able to mount a timely, protective immunological response (i.e. seroprotection) regardless of chemotherapy schedule, similar to healthy controls. Small sample sizes, patient heterogeneity and lack of comparable study designs limit more specific recommendations related to cancer type and optimal timing of vaccination. The inactivated influenza vaccine is safe to administer to immunosuppressed patients; side-effects are similar to those in healthy individuals. Although vaccination before start of chemotherapy is preferred to ensure optimal protection in adults with solid tumours, also vaccination during chemotherapy can reduce influenza-related complications considering the overall trends in serological response. Given the increased morbidity and mortality of influenza, influenza vaccination should be advocated as an inexpensive and safe preventive measure in patients with solid tumours receiving chemotherapy.

Changing Patterns of Undiagnosed HIV Infection in the Netherlands: Who Benefits Most from Intensified HIV Test and Treat Policies?

OBJECTIVES: To estimate HIV prevalence, the number of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) and the undiagnosed proportion in the Netherlands for 2012, and to compare these with published 2007 estimates. DESIGN: Synthesis of all available data sources. METHODS: Multi-Parameter Evidence Synthesis (MPES) was used to obtain estimates in mutually exclusive key populations at higher risk in three geographical regions (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, rest of the Netherlands). Data sources included HIV prevalence surveys, diagnoses at STI clinics, and registered cases in HIV care. Group specific estimates were reported as Bayesian posterior medians and 95% credible intervals (CrI). RESULTS: The 2012 model estimated 24,350 PLWHA (95% CrI 20,420-31,280) aged 15-70 years; 2,906 (+14%) more than in 2007. The estimated population HIV prevalence was 0.20% (95% CrI 0.17-0.26%). The overall proportion of undiagnosed HIV was lower in 2012 (34%, 95% CrI 22-49%) compared to 2007 (40%, 95% CrI 25-55%). After MSM, migrants from sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean formed the largest groups of PLWHA, but proportions of undiagnosed HIV remained high in these groups, 48% and 44% respectively. Amsterdam had lowest proportions undiagnosed for most key populations at higher risk, including MSM and migrants. CONCLUSIONS: In 2012, the number of PLWHA was higher compared to 2007, while the proportion of undiagnosed HIV was lower, especially among MSM. Higher HIV testing rates, earlier treatment, and an improved life expectancy may explain these differences. HIV interventions need to be expanded in all key populations at higher risk, with special focus on migrants and key populationsliving outside of Amsterdam.

[Imported Zika virus infection in the Netherlands]. / Import van zikavirus-infectie in Nederland.

Since mid-2015, a rapidly expanding outbreak of Zika virus infection is spreading across Latin America and the Caribbean. Although Zika virus infection usually causes only mild disease, the World Health Organization has declared the epidemiological association with the occurrence of congenital microcephaly and neurological complications a 'Public Health Emergency of International Concern' and urged the international community to mount a coordinated international response aimed to protect people at risk, especially pregnant women. In December 2015, the first case of imported Zika virus infection in the Netherlands was diagnosed in a returned traveler from Surinam. To date, more than 20 cases have been reported in The Netherlands, all imported from Surinam. We describe the epidemiology, clinical aspects, diagnostic challenges and the existing evidence to date that link Zika virus infection to complications.