Activated phosphoinositide 3-kinase δ syndrome: Update from the ESID Registry and comparison with other autoimmune-lymphoproliferative inborn errors of immunity.

BACKGROUND: Activated phosphoinositide-3-kinase δ syndrome (APDS) is an inborn error of immunity (IEI) with infection susceptibility and immune dysregulation, clinically overlapping with other conditions. Management depends on disease evolution, but predictors of severe disease are lacking. OBJECTIVES: This study sought to report the extended spectrum of disease manifestations in APDS1 versus APDS2; compare these to CTLA4 deficiency, NFKB1 deficiency, and STAT3 gain-of-function (GOF) disease; and identify predictors of severity in APDS. METHODS: Data was collected from the ESID (European Society for Immunodeficiencies)-APDS registry and was compared with published cohorts of the other IEIs. RESULTS: The analysis of 170 patients with APDS outlines high penetrance and early onset of APDS compared to the other IEIs. The large clinical heterogeneity even in individuals with the same PIK3CD variant E1021K illustrates how poorly the genotype predicts the disease phenotype and course. The high clinical overlap between APDS and the other investigated IEIs suggests relevant pathophysiological convergence of the affected pathways. Preferentially affected organ systems indicate specific pathophysiology: bronchiectasis is typical of APDS1; interstitial lung disease and enteropathy are more common in STAT3 GOF and CTLA4 deficiency. Endocrinopathies are most frequent in STAT3 GOF, but growth impairment is also common, particularly in APDS2. Early clinical presentation is a risk factor for severe disease in APDS. CONCLUSIONS: APDS illustrates how a single genetic variant can result in a diverse autoimmune-lymphoproliferative phenotype. Overlap with other IEIs is substantial. Some specific features distinguish APDS1 from APDS2. Early onset is a risk factor for severe disease course calling for specific treatment studies in younger patients.

Therapeutic options for CTLA-4 insufficiency.

BACKGROUND: Heterozygous germline mutations in cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA4) impair the immunomodulatory function of regulatory T cells. Affected individuals are prone to life-threatening autoimmune and lymphoproliferative complications. A number of therapeutic options are currently being used with variable effectiveness. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to characterize the responsiveness of patients with CTLA-4 insufficiency to specific therapies and provide recommendations for the diagnostic workup and therapy at an organ-specific level. METHODS: Clinical features, laboratory findings, and response to treatment were reviewed retrospectively in an international cohort of 173 carriers of CTLA4 mutation. Patients were followed between 2014 and 2020 for a total of 2624 months from diagnosis. Clinical manifestations were grouped on the basis of organ-specific involvement. Medication use and response were recorded and evaluated. RESULTS: Among the 173 CTLA4 mutation carriers, 123 (71%) had been treated for immune complications. Abatacept, rituximab, sirolimus, and corticosteroids ameliorated disease severity, especially in cases of cytopenias and lymphocytic organ infiltration of the gut, lungs, and central nervous system. Immunoglobulin replacement was effective in prevention of infection. Only 4 of 16 patients (25%) with cytopenia who underwent splenectomy had a sustained clinical response. Cure was achieved with stem cell transplantation in 13 of 18 patients (72%). As a result of the aforementioned methods, organ-specific treatment pathways were developed. CONCLUSION: Systemic immunosuppressants and abatacept may provide partial control but require ongoing administration. Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation offers a possible cure for patients with CTLA-4 insufficiency.

What did we learn from CTLA-4 insufficiency on the human immune system?

Cytotoxic-T-lymphocyte-antigen-4 (CTLA-4) is a negative immune regulator constitutively expressed on regulatory T (Treg) cells and upregulated on activated T cells. CTLA-4 inhibits T cell activation by various suppressive functions including competition with CD28, regulation of the inhibitory function of Treg cells, such as transendocytosis, and the control of adhesion and motility. Intrinsic CTLA-4 signaling has been controversially discussed, but so far no distinct signaling pathway has been identified. The CTLA-4-mediated Treg suppression plays an important role in the maintenance of peripheral tolerance and the prevention of autoimmune diseases. Human CTLA-4 insufficiency is caused by heterozygous germline mutations in CTLA4 and characterized by a complex immune dysregulation syndrome. Clinical studies on CTLA4 mutation carriers showed a reduced penetrance and variable expressivity, suggesting modifying factor(s). One hundred and forty-eight CTLA4 mutation carriers have been reported; patients showed hypogammaglobulinemia, recurrent infectious diseases, various autoimmune diseases, and lymphocytic infiltration into multiple organs. The CTLA-4 expression level in Treg cells was reduced, while the frequency of Treg cells was increased in CTLA-4-insufficient patients. The transendocytosis assay is a specific functional test for the assessment of newly identified CTLA4 gene variants. Immunoglobulin substitution, corticosteroids, immunosuppressive therapy, and targeted therapy such as with CTLA-4 fusion proteins and mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors were applied; patients with life-threatening, treatment-resistant symptoms underwent hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. The fact that in humans CTLA-4 insufficiency causes severe disease taught us that the amount of CTLA-4 molecules present in/on T cells matters for immune homeostasis. However, whether the pathology-causing activated T lymphocytes in CTLA-4-insufficient patients are antigen-specific is an unsolved question. CTLA-4, in addition, has a role in autoimmune diseases and cancer. Anti-CTLA-4 drugs are employed as checkpoint inhibitors to target various forms of cancer. Thus, clinical research on human CTLA-4 insufficiency might provide us a deeper understanding of the mechanism(s) of the CTLA-4 molecule and immune dysregulation disorders.

Phenotype, penetrance, and treatment of 133 cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4-insufficient subjects.

BACKGROUND: Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) is a negative immune regulator. Heterozygous CTLA4 germline mutations can cause a complex immune dysregulation syndrome in human subjects. OBJECTIVE: We sought to characterize the penetrance, clinical features, and best treatment options in 133 CTLA4 mutation carriers. METHODS: Genetics, clinical features, laboratory values, and outcomes of treatment options were assessed in a worldwide cohort of CTLA4 mutation carriers. RESULTS: We identified 133 subjects from 54 unrelated families carrying 45 different heterozygous CTLA4 mutations, including 28 previously undescribed mutations. Ninety mutation carriers were considered affected, suggesting a clinical penetrance of at least 67%; median age of onset was 11 years, and the mortality rate within affected mutation carriers was 16% (n = 15). Main clinical manifestations included hypogammaglobulinemia (84%), lymphoproliferation (73%), autoimmune cytopenia (62%), and respiratory (68%), gastrointestinal (59%), or neurological features (29%). Eight affected mutation carriers had lymphoma, and 3 had gastric cancer. An EBV association was found in 6 patients with malignancies. CTLA4 mutations were associated with lymphopenia and decreased T-, B-, and natural killer (NK) cell counts. Successful targeted therapies included application of CTLA-4 fusion proteins, mechanistic target of rapamycin inhibitors, and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. EBV reactivation occurred in 2 affected mutation carriers after immunosuppression. CONCLUSIONS: Affected mutation carriers with CTLA-4 insufficiency can present in any medical specialty. Family members should be counseled because disease manifestation can occur as late as 50 years of age. EBV- and cytomegalovirus-associated complications must be closely monitored. Treatment interventions should be coordinated in clinical trials.

Increased Risk for Malignancies in 131 Affected CTLA4 Mutation Carriers.

Background: Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) is a negative immune regulator on the surface of T cells. In humans, heterozygous germline mutations in CTLA4 can cause an immune dysregulation syndrome. The phenotype comprises a broad spectrum of autoinflammatory, autoimmune, and immunodeficient features. An increased frequency of malignancies in primary immunodeficiencies is known, but their incidence in CTLA-4 insufficiency is unknown. Methods: Clinical manifestations and details of the clinical history were assessed in a worldwide cohort of 184 CTLA4 mutation carriers. Whenever a malignancy was reported, a malignancy-specific questionnaire was filled. Results: Among the 184 CTLA4 mutation carriers, 131 were considered affected, indicating a penetrance of 71.2%. We documented 17 malignancies, which amounts to a cancer prevalence of 12.9% in affected CTLA4 mutation carriers. There were ten lymphomas, five gastric cancers, one multiple myeloma, and one metastatic melanoma. Seven lymphomas and three gastric cancers were EBV-associated. Conclusion: Our findings demonstrate an elevated cancer risk for patients with CTLA-4 insufficiency. As more than half of the cancers were EBV-associated, the failure to control oncogenic viruses seems to be part of the CTLA-4-insufficient phenotype. Hence, lymphoproliferation and EBV viral load in blood should be carefully monitored, especially when immunosuppressing affected CTLA4 mutation carriers.