Accelerated atherosclerosis in beta-thalassemia.

Children with beta-thalassemia (BT) present with an increase in carotid intima-medial thickness, an early sign suggestive of premature atherosclerosis. However, it is unknown if there is a direct relationship between BT and atherosclerotic disease. To evaluate this, wild-type (WT, littermates) and BT (Hbbth3/+) mice, both male and female, were placed on a 3-mo high-fat diet with low-density lipoprotein receptor suppression via overexpression of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) gain-of-function mutation (D377Y). Mechanistically, we hypothesize that heme-mediated oxidative stress creates a proatherogenic environment in BT because BT is a hemolytic anemia that has increased free heme and exhausted hemopexin, heme's endogenous scavenger, in the vasculature. We evaluated the effect of hemopexin (HPX) therapy, mediated via an adeno-associated virus, to the progression of atherosclerosis in BT and a phenylhydrazine-induced model of intravascular hemolysis. In addition, we evaluated the effect of deferiprone (DFP)-mediated iron chelation in the progression of atherosclerosis in BT mice. Aortic en face and aortic root lesion area analysis revealed elevated plaque accumulation in both male and female BT mice compared with WT mice. Hemopexin therapy was able to decrease plaque accumulation in both BT mice and mice on our phenylhydrazine (PHZ)-induced model of hemolysis. DFP decreased atherosclerosis in BT mice but did not provide an additive benefit to HPX therapy. Our data demonstrate for the first time that the underlying pathophysiology of BT leads to accelerated atherosclerosis and shows that heme contributes to atherosclerotic plaque development in BT.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This work definitively shows for the first time that beta-thalassemia leads to accelerated atherosclerosis. We demonstrated that intravascular hemolysis is a prominent feature in beta-thalassemia and the resulting increases in free heme are mechanistically relevant. Adeno-associated virus (AAV)-hemopexin therapy led to decreased free heme and atherosclerotic plaque area in both beta-thalassemia and phenylhydrazine-treated mice. Deferiprone-mediated iron chelation led to deceased plaque accumulation in beta-thalassemia mice but provided no additive benefit to hemopexin therapy.

Increasing nitric oxide bioavailability fails to improve collateral vessel formation in humanized sickle cell mice.

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is associated with repeated bouts of vascular insufficiency leading to organ dysfunction. Deficits in revascularization following vascular injury are evident in SCD patients and animal models. We aimed to elucidate whether enhancing nitric oxide bioavailability in SCD mice improves outcomes in a model of vascular insufficiency. Townes AA (wild type) and SS (sickle cell) mice were treated with either L-Arginine (5% in drinking water), L-NAME (N(ω)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester; 1 g/L in drinking water) or NO-generating hydrogel (PA-YK-NO), then subjected to hindlimb ischemia via femoral artery ligation and excision. Perfusion recovery was monitored over 28 days via LASER Doppler perfusion imaging. Consistent with previous findings, perfusion was impaired in SS mice (63 ± 4% of non-ischemic limb perfusion in AA vs 33 ± 3% in SS; day 28; P < 0.001; n = 5-7) and associated with increased necrosis. L-Arginine treatment had no significant effect on perfusion recovery or necrosis (n = 5-7). PA-YK-NO treatment led to worsened perfusion recovery (19 ± 3 vs. 32 ± 3 in vehicle-treated mice; day 7; P < 0.05; n = 4-5), increased necrosis score (P < 0.05, n = 4-5) and a 46% increase in hindlimb peroxynitrite (P = 0.055, n = 4-5). Interestingly, L-NAME worsened outcomes in SS mice with decreased in vivo lectin staining following ischemia (7 ± 2% area in untreated vs 4 ± 2% in treated mice, P < 0.05, n = 5). Our findings demonstrate that L-arginine and direct NO delivery both fail to improve postischemic neovascularization in SCD. Addition of NO to the inflammatory, oxidative environment in SCD may result in further oxidative stress and limit recovery.

A lipidomic screen of hyperglycemia-treated HRECs links 12/15-Lipoxygenase to microvascular dysfunction during diabetic retinopathy via NADPH oxidase.

Retinal hyperpermeability and subsequent macular edema is a cardinal feature of early diabetic retinopathy (DR). Here, we investigated the role of bioactive lipid metabolites, in particular 12/15-lipoxygenase (LOX)-derived metabolites, in this process. LC/MS lipidomic screen of human retinal endothelial cells (HRECs) demonstrated that 15-HETE was the only significantly increased metabolite (2.4 ± 0.4-fold, P = 0.0004) by high glucose (30 mM) treatment. In the presence of arachidonic acid, additional eicosanoids generated by 12/15-LOX, including 12- and 11-HETEs, were significantly increased. Fluorescein angiography and retinal albumin leakage showed a significant decrease in retinal hyperpermeability in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice lacking 12/15-LOX compared with diabetic WT mice. Our previous studies demonstrated the potential role of NADPH oxidase in mediating the permeability effect of 12- and 15-HETEs, therefore we tested the impact of intraocular injection of 12-HETE in mice lacking the catalytic subunit of NADPH oxidase (NOX2). The permeability effect of 12-HETE was significantly reduced in NOX2(-/-) mice compared with the WT mice. In vitro experiments also showed that 15-HETE induced HREC migration and tube formation in a NOX-dependent manner. Taken together our data suggest that 12/15-LOX is implicated in DR via a NOX-dependent mechanism.

Transcriptional regulation of α1H T-type calcium channel under hypoxia.

The low-voltage-activated T-type Ca(2+) channels play an important role in mediating the cellular responses to altered oxygen tension. Among three T-type channel isoforms, α1G, α1H, and α1I, only α1H was found to be upregulated under hypoxia. However, mechanisms underlying such hypoxia-dependent isoform-specific gene regulation remain incompletely understood. We, therefore, studied the hypoxia-dependent transcriptional regulation of α1G and α1H gene promoters with the aim to identify the functional hypoxia-response elements (HREs). In rat pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) and pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells after hypoxia (3% O2) exposure, we observed a prominent increase in α1H mRNA at 12 h along with a significant rise in α1H-mediated T-type current at 24 and 48 h. We then cloned two promoter fragments from the 5'-flanking regions of rat α1G and α1H gene, 2,000 and 3,076 bp, respectively, and inserted these fragments into a luciferase reporter vector. Transient transfection of PASMCs and PC12 cells with these recombinant constructs and subsequent luciferase assay revealed a significant increase in luciferase activity from the reporter containing the α1H, but not α1G, promoter fragment under hypoxia. Using serial deletion and point mutation analysis strategies, we identified a functional HRE at site -1,173cacgc-1,169 within the α1H promoter region. Furthermore, an electrophoretic mobility shift assay using this site as a DNA probe demonstrated an increased binding activity to nuclear protein extracts from the cells after hypoxia exposure. Taken together, these findings indicate that hypoxia-induced α1H upregulation involves binding of hypoxia-inducible factor to an HRE within the α1H promoter region.

KLF4 and SOX9 transcription factors antagonize ß-catenin and inhibit TCF-activity in cancer cells.

The transcriptional activator ß-catenin is a key mediator of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway. ß-catenin itself does not bind DNA but functions via interaction with T-cell factor (TCF)/lymphoid-enhancing factor (LEF) transcription factors. Thus, in the case of active Wnt signaling, ß-catenin, in cooperation with TCF/LEF proteins family, activates the expression of a wide variety of genes. To date, the list of established ß-catenin interacting targets is far from complete. In this study, we aimed to establish the interaction between ß-catenin and transcription factors that might affect TCF activity. We took advantage of EMSA, using TCF as a probe, to screen oligonucleotides known to bind specific transcription factors that might dislodge or antagonize ß-catenin/TCF binding. We found that Sox9 and KLF4 antagonize ß-catenin/TCF binding in HEK293, A549, SW480, and T47D cells. This inhibition of TCF binding was concentration-dependent and correlated to the in vitro TCF-luciferase functional assays. Overexpression of Sox9 and KLF4 transcription factors in cancer cells shows a concentration-dependent reduction of TCF-luciferase as well as the TCF-binding activities. In addition, we demonstrated that both Sox9 and KLF4 interact with ß-catenin in an immunoprecipitation assay and reduce its binding to TCF4. Together, these results demonstrate that Sox9 and KLF4 transcription factors antagonize ß-catenin/TCF in cancer cells.

Intestinal barrier dysfunction in murine sickle cell disease is associated with small intestine neutrophilic inflammation, oxidative stress, and dysbiosis.

The intestinal microbiome has emerged as a potential contributor to the severity of sickle cell disease (SCD). We sought to determine whether SCD mice exhibit intestinal barrier dysfunction, inflammation, and dysbiosis. Using the Townes humanized sickle cell mouse model, we found a 3-fold increase in intestinal permeability as assessed via FITC-dextran (4 kDa) assay in SS (SCD) mice compared to AA (wild type) mice (n = 4, p < 0.05). This was associated with 25 to 50% decreases in claudin-1, 3, and 15 and zonula occludens-1 gene expression (n = 8-10, p < 0.05) in the small intestine. Increased Ly6G staining demonstrated more neutrophils in the SS small intestine (3-fold, n = 5, p < 0.05) associated with increased expression of TNFα, IL-17A, CXCL1, and CD68 (2.5 to 5-fold, n = 7-10, p < 0.05). In addition, we observed 30 to 55% decreases in superoxide dismutase-1, glutathione peroxidase-1, and catalase antioxidant enzyme expression (n = 7-8, p < 0.05) concomitant to an increase in superoxide (2-fold, n = 4, p < 0.05). Importantly, all significant observations of a leaky gut phenotype and inflammation were limited to the small intestine and not observed in the colon. Finally, characterization of the composition of the microbiome within the small intestine revealed dysbiosis in SS mice compared to their AA littermates with 47 phyla to species-level significant alterations in amplicon sequence variants. We conclude that the intestinal barrier is compromised in SCD, associated with decreased gene expression of tight junction proteins, enhanced inflammation, oxidative stress, and gut microbiome dysbiosis, all specific to the small intestine.

Alpha1G T-type calcium channel selectively regulates P-selectin surface expression in pulmonary capillary endothelium.

Regulated P-selectin surface expression provides a rapid measure for endothelial transition to a proinflammatory phenotype. In general, P-selectin surface expression results from Weibel-Palade body (WPb) exocytosis. Yet, it is unclear whether pulmonary capillary endothelium possesses WPbs or regulated P-selectin surface expression and, if so, how inflammatory stimuli initiate exocytosis. We used immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence labeling, ultrastructural assessment, and an isolated perfused lung model to demonstrate that capillary endothelium lacks WPbs but possesses P-selectin. Thrombin stimulated P-selectin surface expression in both extra-alveolar vessel and alveolar capillary endothelium. Only in capillaries was the thrombin-stimulated P-selectin surface expression considerably mitigated by pharmacologic blockade of the T-type channel or genetic knockout of the T-type channel alpha(1G)-subunit. Depolarization of endothelial plasma membrane via high K(+) perfusion capable of eliciting cytosolic Ca(2+) transients also provoked P-selectin surface expression in alveolar capillaries that was abolished by T-type channel blockade or alpha(1G) knockout. Our findings reveal an intracellular WPb-independent P-selectin pool in pulmonary capillary endothelium, where the regulated P-selectin surface expression is triggered by Ca(2+) transients evoked through activation of the alpha(1G) T-type channel.

cGMP-dependent protein kinase and the regulation of vascular smooth muscle cell gene expression: possible involvement of Elk-1 sumoylation.

Although the regulation of smooth muscle cell (SMC) gene expression by cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) is now recognized, the mechanisms underlying these effects are not fully understood. In this study, we report that PKG-I stimulates myocardin/serum response factor (SRF)-dependent gene expression in vascular SMCs. The expression of PKG in PKG-deficient cells enhanced myocardin-induced SM22 promoter activity in a concentration-dependent fashion. However, neither SRF nor myocardin expression was affected. To investigate alternative mechanisms, we examined whether PKG affects the phosphorylation of E26-like protein-1 (Elk-1), a SRF/myocardin transcription antagonist. The activation of PKG caused an increase in a higher molecular mass form of phospho-Elk-1 that was determined to be small ubiquitin-related modifier (sumo)ylated Elk-1. PKG increased Elk-1 sumoylation twofold compared with the PKG-deficient cells, and Elk-1 sumoylation was reduced using dominant-negative sumo-conjugating enzyme, DN-Ubc9, confirming PKG-dependent sumoylation of phospho-Elk-1 in vascular SMCs. In addition, PKG stimulated Elk-1 sumoylation in COS-7 cells overexpressing Elk-1, sumo-1, and PKG-I. The increased expression of PKG in vascular SMCs inhibited Elk-1 binding to SMC-specific promoters, SM22 and smooth muscle myosin heavy chain, as measured by EMSA and chromatin immunoprecipitation assay, and PKG suppressed the Elk-1 inhibition of SM22 reporter gene expression. Taken together, these data suggest that PKG-I decreases Elk-1 activity by sumo modification of Elk-1, thereby increasing myocardin-SRF activity on SMC-specific gene expression.

Serum of sickle cell disease patients contains fetal hemoglobin silencing factors secreted from leukocytes.

BACKGROUND: The mechanisms that regulate fetal hemoglobin (HbF) expression in sickle cell disease (SCD) remain elusive. We previously showed that steady-state SCD patients with high HbF levels due to a γ-globin gene mutation demonstrate strong inverse correlations between HbF levels and leukocyte counts, suggesting that leukocytes play a role in regulating HbF in SCD. MATERIALS AND METHODS: To further investigate the role of leukocytes in HbF expression in SCD, we examined the presence of HbF silencing factors in the serum of 82 SCD patients who received hydroxyurea (HU) therapy. RESULTS: HU-mediated HbF induction was associated with elevated total hemoglobin levels and improved red blood cell parameters, but there was no correlation with reticulocyte or platelet counts. Importantly, we again found that HU-induced HbF levels correlated with reductions in both neutrophils and lymphocytes/monocytes, indicating that these cell lineages may have a role in regulating HU-mediated HbF expression. Our in vitro studies using CD34+-derived primary erythroblasts found that patient serum preparations include HbF silencing factors that are distinct from granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and the activity of such factors decreases upon HU therapy. CONCLUSION: Together, these results demonstrate the importance of leukocyte numbers in the regulation of HbF levels for SCD patients both in steady state and under HU therapy, and that leukocytes secrete HbF silencing factors that negatively affect HbF expression in erythroid-lineage cells in SCD.

Regulation of vascular smooth muscle cell phenotype by cyclic GMP and cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase.

This basic science review examines the role of cGMP and cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) in the regulation of vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) phenotype. The first such studies suggested a role for nitric oxide (NO) and atrial natriuretic peptides (ANP), and the downstream second messenger cGMP, in the inhibition of VSMC proliferation. Subsequently, many laboratories confirmed the anti-proliferative effects of the cGMP pathway in cultured cells and the anti-atherosclerotic effects of the pathway in in vivo animal models. Other studies suggested that the cGMP target, PKG, mediated the anti-proliferative effects of cGMP although other laboratories have not consistently observed these effects. On the other hand, PKG mediates cGMP-dependent increases in smooth muscle-specific gene expression, and in vivo studies suggest that PKG expression itself reduces vascular lesions. The mechanisms by which PKG regulates gene expression are addressed, but it still unknown how the cGMP-PKG pathway is involved in smooth muscle-specific gene expression and phenotype.

Sp1 transcription factor as a molecular target for nitric oxide-- and cyclic nucleotide--mediated suppression of cGMP-dependent protein kinase-Ialpha expression in vascular smooth muscle cells.

cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) expression is highly variable and decreases in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), exposure of cells to nitric oxide (NO), or in response to balloon catheter injury in vivo. In this study, the mechanisms of human type I PKG-alpha (PKG-Ialpha) gene expression were examined. Three structurally unrelated NO donors decreased PKG-Ialpha promoter activity after transfection of a promoter/luciferase construct in VSMCs. Promoter deletion analysis demonstrated that (1) a 120-bp promoter containing tandem Sp1 sites was sufficient to drive basal PKG-Ialpha promoter activity, and (2) NO was inhibitory at this site. Cyclic nucleotide analogues also suppressed PKG-Ialpha promoter activity with cAMP being more potent than cGMP. The effects of cyclic nucleotides to suppress PKG-Ialpha promoter activity were attenuated by a specific cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) inhibitor. Single or double mutation of Sp1 binding sites abolished PKG-Ialpha expression. Moreover, Sp1 binding activity on the PKG-Ialpha promoter was detected in A7r5 cells, and this binding was inhibited by NO and cyclic nucleotides. These results indicate that PKG-Ialpha gene expression is driven by an Sp1 transcription mechanism, and that NO and cAMP inhibit Sp1-mediated PKG-Ialpha gene expression through separate mechanisms.

Nitric Oxide-cGMP Signaling Stimulates Erythropoiesis through Multiple Lineage-Specific Transcription Factors: Clinical Implications and a Novel Target for Erythropoiesis.

Much attention has been directed to the physiological effects of nitric oxide (NO)-cGMP signaling, but virtually nothing is known about its hematologic effects. We reported for the first time that cGMP signaling induces human γ-globin gene expression. Aiming at developing novel therapeutics for anemia, we examined here the hematologic effects of NO-cGMP signaling in vivo and in vitro. We treated wild-type mice with NO to activate soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC), a key enzyme of cGMP signaling. Compared to untreated mice, NO-treated mice had higher red blood cell counts and total hemoglobin but reduced leukocyte counts, demonstrating that when activated, NO-cGMP signaling exerts hematopoietic effects on multiple types of blood cells in vivo. We next generated mice which overexpressed rat sGC in erythroid and myeloid cells. The forced expression of sGCs activated cGMP signaling in both lineage cells. Compared with non-transgenic littermates, sGC mice exhibited hematologic changes similar to those of NO-treated mice. Consistently, a membrane-permeable cGMP enhanced the differentiation of hematopoietic progenitors toward erythroid-lineage cells but inhibited them toward myeloid-lineage cells by controlling multiple lineage-specific transcription factors. Human γ-globin gene expression was induced at low but appreciable levels in sGC mice carrying the human ß-globin locus. Together, these results demonstrate that NO-cGMP signaling is capable of stimulating erythropoiesis in both in vitro and vivo settings by controlling the expression of multiple lineage-specific transcription factors, suggesting that cGMP signaling upregulates erythropoiesis at the level of gene transcription. The NO-cGMP signaling axis may constitute a novel target to stimulate erythropoiesis in vivo.

Transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG-I): pathophysiological significance.

The ability of the endothelium to produce nitric oxide, which induces generation of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) that activates cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG-I), in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), is essential for the maintenance of vascular homeostasis. Yet, disturbance of this nitric oxide/cGMP/PKG-I pathway has been shown to play an important role in many cardiovascular diseases. In the last two decades, in vitro and in vivo models of vascular injury have shown that PKG-I is suppressed following nitric oxide, cGMP, cytokine, and growth factor stimulation. The molecular basis for these changes in PKG-I expression is still poorly understood, and they are likely to be mediated by a number of processes, including changes in gene transcription, mRNA stability, protein synthesis, or protein degradation. Emerging studies have begun to define mechanisms responsible for changes in PKG-I expression and have identified cis- and trans-acting regulatory elements, with a plausible role being attributed to post-translational control of PKG-I protein levels. This review will focus mainly on recent advances in understanding of the regulation of PKG-I expression in VSMCs, with an emphasis on the physiological and pathological significance of PKG-I down-regulation in VSMCs in certain circumstances.

Stabilization of cGMP-dependent protein kinase G (PKG) expression in vascular smooth muscle cells: contribution of 3'UTR of its mRNA.

The type-I cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG-I) expression regulation is not yet completely understood. In this study, we examined the role of 3'-untranslated region (3'UTR)-PKG-I messenger RNA (mRNA) in the control of PKG-I expression in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Using a 3'-rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) for the amplification of complementary DNA (cDNA) ends, we generated and cloned a 1.2-kb-3'UTR mRNA PKG-I in pGL3 control vector downstream of the luciferase reporter gene. Serial deletions and functional studies revealed that among the deleted constructs, only the 1.2-kb-3'UTR PKG-I mRNA possesses the highest activity in transfected VSMC. Kinetic luciferase assays in the presence of actinomycin D showed that this construct stabilizes luciferase activity compared to the control vector. Sequence analysis of 3'UTR-PKG-I mRNA revealed the existence of four AU-rich regions (AU1 through AU4) in addition to a potential poly(A) site. Different riboprobes were generated either by 5'-end-labelling of designed ribonucleotides, containing individual AU-rich regions or by in vitro transcription assay using cloned 1.2-kb cDNA as a template. RNA-electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) and ultra-violet cross-linking (UV-CL) assays showed that AU1, AU3, AU4 and 1.2-kb probes were able to retard cytosolic and nuclear proteins. Taken together, these data suggest that PKG-I expression is subjected to post-transcriptional regulation in VSMC through the 3'UTR of its mRNA.

Cav3.1 (alpha1G) controls von Willebrand factor secretion in rat pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells.

The T-type Ca2+ channel Cav3.1 subunit is present in pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (PMVECs), but not in pulmonary artery endothelial cells (PAECs). The present study sought to assess the role of Cav3.1 in thrombin-induced Weibel-Palade body exocytosis and consequent von Willebrand factor (VWF) release. In PMVECs and PAECs transduced with a green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged VWF chimera, we examined the real-time dynamics and secretory process of VWF-GFP-containing vesicles in response to thrombin and the cAMP-elevating agent isoproterenol. Whereas thrombin stimulated a progressive decrease in the number of VWF-GFP-containing vesicles in both cell types, isoproterenol only decreased the number of VWF-GFP-containing vesicles in PAECs. In PMVECs, thrombin-induced decrease in the number of VWF-GFP-containing vesicles was nearly abolished by the T-type Ca2+ channel blocker mibefradil as well as by Cav3.1 gene silencing with small hairpin RNA. Expression of recombinant Cav3.1 subunit in PAECs resulted in pronounced increase in thrombin-stimulated Ca2+ entry, which is sensitive to mibefradil. Together, these data indicate that VWF secretion from lung endothelial cells is regulated by two distinct pathways involving Ca2+ or cAMP, and support the hypothesis that activation of Cav3.1 T-type Ca2+ channels in PMVECs provides a unique cytosolic Ca2+ source important for Gq-linked agonist-induced VWF release.

Upstream stimulatory factors (USF-1/USF-2) regulate human cGMP-dependent protein kinase I gene expression in vascular smooth muscle cells.

Cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase I plays a pivotal role in regulating smooth muscle cell relaxation, growth, and differentiation. Expression of the enzyme varies greatly in smooth muscle and in other tissues and cell types, yet little is known regarding the mechanisms regulating cGMP-dependent protein kinase gene expression. The present work was undertaken to characterize the mechanisms controlling kinase gene expression in vascular smooth muscle cells. A 2-kb human cGMP-dependent protein kinase I 5'-noncoding promoter sequence was characterized by serial deletion, and functional studies demonstrated that a 591-bp 5'-promoter construct possessed the highest activity compared with all other constructs generated from the larger promoter. Analysis of the sequence between -472 and -591 bp from the transcriptional start site revealed the existence of two E-like boxes known to bind upstream stimulatory factors. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays and functional studies using luciferase reporter gene assays identified upstream stimulatory factors as the transcription factors bound to the E-boxes in the 591-bp promoter. Site-directed mutagenesis of the E-boxes abolished the binding of upstream stimulatory factor proteins and decreased the activity of the cGMP-dependent protein kinase I 591-bp promoter, thus confirming the involvement of these transcription factors in mediating gene expression. Cotransfection experiments demonstrated that overexpression of upstream stimulatory factors 1 and 2 increased cGMP-dependent protein kinase I promoter activity. Collectively, these data suggest that the human proximal cGMP-dependent protein kinase I promoter is regulated by tandem E-boxes that bind upstream stimulatory factors.

Downregulation of cGMP-dependent protein kinase expression by inflammatory cytokines in vascular smooth muscle cells.

NO and cGMP have antigrowth and anti-inflammatory effects on the vessel wall in response to injury. It is well established that after vascular injury proinflammatory cytokines are involved in vascular wall remodeling. The purpose of this study was to ascertain the signaling mechanisms involved in cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) suppression by inflammatory cytokines in primary bovine aortic vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). Interleukin (IL)-Ibeta, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, and LPS decreased the mRNA and protein levels of PKG in VSMC. IL-Ibeta, TNF-alpha, and LPS increased inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression and cGMP production. Treatment of cells with selective inhibitors of iNOS or soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) reversed the downregulation of PKG expression induced by cytokines and LPS. The NO donor (Z)-1-[2-(2-aminoethyl)-N-(2-ammonioethyl)amino]diazen-1-ium-1,2-diolate (DETA NONOate) and 3-(5-hydroxymethyl-2-furyl)-1-benzylindazole (YC-1), a NO-independent sGC activator, decreased PKG mRNA and protein expression in bovine aortic VSMC. Cyclic nucleotide analogs [8-(4-chlorophenylthio)guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (CPT-cGMP) and 8-(4-chlorophenylthio)adenosine 3,5'-cyclic monophosphate (CPT-cAMP)] also suppressed PKG mRNA and protein expression. However, CPT-cAMP was more effective than CPT-cGMP in decreasing PKG mRNA levels. Selective inhibition of PKA with the Rp isomer of 8-(4-chlorophenylthio)adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphorothioate (Rp-8p-CPT cAMPS) prevented the downregulation of PKG by LPS. In contrast, the Rp isomer of 8-(4-chlorophenylthio)guanosine 3,5'-cyclic monophosphorothioate (Rp-8p-CPT cGMPS; inhibitor of PKG) had no effect on LPS-induced inhibition of PKG mRNA and protein expression. These studies suggest that cross-activation of PKA in response to iNOS expression by inflammatory mediators downregulates PKG expression in bovine aortic VSMC.