Maternal and Paternal Depressive Symptoms, Home Learning Environment, and Children's Early Literacy.

The present study examined the influence of mothers' and fathers' depressive symptoms on children's early literacy skills. Home learning-related parenting (HLE) was examined as a mediator of these associations. Families (N = 465) were recruited through preschools. Results indicate an actor effect of fathers', but not mothers', depressive symptoms on HLE parenting such that fathers who reported more depressive symptoms engaged in fewer HLE activities. A partner effect of fathers' depressive symptoms on HLE parenting indicated that higher levels of fathers' depressive symptoms were associated with lower levels of mothers' home learning activities. Finally, fathers' depressive symptoms negatively related to children's early literacy skills indirectly through mothers' HLE parenting. Findings highlight a process of negative effect of parent depressive symptoms on children's early literacy and emphasize including both mothers and fathers in future research concerned with the influence of parents' depressive symptoms on children's development.

Self-regulation and the Development of Literacy and Language Achievement from Preschool through Second Grade.

Previous research has established that higher levels of behavioral self-regulation are associated with higher levels of language and literacy. In this study, we take a more developmental perspective by considering how trajectories of self-regulation development (early, intermediate, late) predict the way literacy and language skills develop from preschool through second grade. Children (n = 351) were assessed twice per year for up to four years on indicators of decoding, reading comprehension, phonological awareness, and vocabulary. Using non-linear growth curve models, we found that children who demonstrated self-regulation earlier had higher language and literacy skills throughout preschool to second grade. More specifically, earlier self-regulation trajectories were associated with both higher levels and earlier development of both decoding and reading comprehension, but not faster development. Children with early self-regulation trajectories developed phonological awareness earlier than those with late self-regulation trajectories. Finally, children with early self-regulation trajectories had higher levels of vocabulary than children with intermediate trajectories, but did not differ on the rate or timing of vocabulary development. Findings point to the enduring and interconnected nature of self-regulation and children's language and literacy development.

Parental Writing Support and Preschoolers' Early Literacy, Language, and Fine Motor Skills.

The current study examines the nature and variability of parents' aid to preschoolers in the context of a shared writing task, as well as the relations between this support and children's literacy, vocabulary, and fine motor skills. In total, 135 preschool children (72 girls) and their parents (primarily mothers) in an ethnically diverse, middle-income community were observed while writing a semi-structured invitation for a pretend birthday party together. Children's phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge, word decoding, vocabulary, and fine motor skills were also assessed. Results revealed that parents provided variable, but generally low-level, support for children's approximation of sound-symbol correspondence in their writing (i.e., graphophonemic support), as well as for their production of letter forms (i.e., print support). Parents frequently accepted errors rather than asking for corrections (i.e., demand for precision). Further analysis of the parent-child dyads (n = 103) who wrote the child's name on the invitation showed that parents provided higher graphophonemic, but not print, support when writing the child's name than other words. Overall parental graphophonemic support was positively linked to children's decoding and fine motor skills, whereas print support and demand for precision were not related to any of the child outcomes. In sum, this study indicates that while parental support for preschoolers' writing may be minimal, it is uniquely linked to key literacy-related outcomes in preschool.

Guidelines and best practices for assessing young children remotely.

Given the recent rise in the use of remote assessments to collect data from young children, researchers and practitioners would benefit from guidance on best practices within the field. Based on our experiences with assessing over 600 preschoolers remotely, our research team provides a set of main principles to guide professionals to successfully create and operationalize systems for remote assessment. Guidelines include detailed information about how to choose a technology platform, select and use online assessments, and how to adapt traditional tasks for remote use. We also note the challenges inherent in using certain types of tasks, provide tips for scheduling remote sessions, and offer advice for how to promote children's engagement throughout the assessment process.

Longitudinal Relations Between Parental Writing Support and Preschoolers' Language and Literacy Skills.

Parental writing support was examined over time and in relation to children's language and literacy skills. Seventy-seven parents and their preschoolers were videotaped writing an invitation together twice during one year. Parental writing support was coded at the level of the letter to document parents' graphophonemic support (letter-sound correspondence), print support (letter formation), and demand for precision (expectation for correcting writing errors). Parents primarily relied on only a couple print (i.e., parent writing the letter alone) and graphophonemic (i.e., saying the word as a whole, dictating letters as children write) strategies. Graphophonemic and print support in preschool predicted children's decoding skills, and graphophonemic support also predicted children's future phonological awareness. Neither type of support predicted children's vocabulary scores. Demand for precision occurred infrequently and was unrelated to children's outcomes. Findings demonstrate the importance of parental writing support for augmenting children's literacy skills.

Relative Contributions of Pre-Kindergarten and Kindergarten to Children's Literacy and Mathematics Skills.

A difficulty for developmental researchers is disambiguating children's general maturation from the influence of schooling. In this study, we use a natural experiment to examine the influence of pre-kindergarten and kindergarten schooling experiences on the development of literacy and mathematics. Children (n = 60) whose birthdates fell within two months of the state-determined cut-off date for pre-kindergarten and kindergarten entry were administered four subtests of the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement III in the fall and spring of the school year. Using hierarchical linear modeling coupled with propensity score matching, children who were starting kindergarten, and who had prior experience in pre-kindergarten, had higher scores on measures of phonological awareness, early reading, and mathematics skills than did children who had not attended pre-kindergarten previously, even though they were essentially the same age. Fall vocabulary scores did not differ in relation to whether children had pre-kindergarten experience. In addition, although children who attended kindergarten as well as those who attended pre-kindergarten exhibited growth on all measures during the school year, children who attended kindergarten demonstrated greater gains in early reading and vocabulary during the school year. These findings highlight the potential of early schooling processes to facilitate children's intellectual growth.

Beyond Tier Three: Individualized Levels of Support During Headsprout® Early Reading Instruction for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

We previously conducted a series of conceptual replications to parse out which-and to what degree-adaptations and individualized supports were needed for children to access and learn early reading skills using Headsprout®. Here we developed a systematic decision-making process for providing levels of support to individuals with autism who require additional instruction in order to access and/or advance through Headsprout®. Using a series of single-case AB, ABC, and multiple-baseline designs we examined strategies from our previous research and additional strategies iteratively developed during the study on six students with autism, all of whom demonstrated progression through Headsprout® and increased reading skills. We provide practical implications for teachers and suggestions to research these supports with other computer-based programs.

Schooling effects on preschoolers' self-regulation, early literacy, and language growth.

The present study examined the influence of schooling during children's first and second years of preschool for children who experienced different amounts of preschool (i.e., one or two years), but who were essentially the same chronological age. Children (n = 76) were tested in the fall and spring of the school year using measures of self-regulation, decoding, letter knowledge, and vocabulary. Using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM), preschool was not associated with children's development of self-regulation in either year. For decoding and letter knowledge, children finishing their second year of preschool had higher scores, although both groups of children grew similarly during the school year. Thus, our results suggest that the first and second years of preschool are both systematically associated with decoding and letter knowledge gains, and the effects are cumulative (two years predicted greater gains overall than did one year of preschool). Finally, children's chronological age, and not whether they experienced one versus two years of preschool, predicted children's vocabulary and self-regulation outcomes. Implications for preschool curricula and instruction are discussed, including the increasing emphasis on literacy learning prior to kindergarten entry and the need to address self-regulation development along with academic learning.

Analysis of letter name knowledge using Rasch measurement.

Letter name knowledge (LNK) is a key predictor of later reading ability and has been emphasized strongly in recent educational policy. Studies of LNK have implicitly treated it as a unidimensional construct with all letters equally relevant to its measurement. However, some empirical research suggests that contextual factors can affect the measurement of LNK. In this study, we analyze responses from 909 children on measures of LNK using the Rasch model and its extensions, and consider two contextual factors: the format of assessment and the own-name advantage, which states that children are more likely to know letters in their own first names. Results indicate that both contextual factors have important impacts on measurement and that LNK does not meet the requirements of Rasch measurement even when accounting for the contextual factors. These findings introduce philosophical concerns for measurement of constrained skills which have limited content for assessment.

The Access to Literacy Assessment System for Phonological Awareness: An Adaptive Measure of Phonological Awareness Appropriate for Children With Speech and/or Language Impairment.

Purpose The Access to Literacy Assessment System-Phonological Awareness (ATLAS-PA) was developed for use with children with speech and/or language impairment. The subtests (Rhyming, Blending, and Segmenting) are appropriate for children who are 3-7 years of age. ATLAS-PA is composed entirely of receptive items, incorporates individualized levels of instruction, and is adaptive in nature. Method To establish the construct validity of ATLAS-PA, we collected data from children with typical development (n = 938) and those who have speech and/or language impairment (n = 227). Results Rasch analyses indicated that items fit well together and formed a unidimensional construct of phonological awareness. Differential item functioning was minimal between the two groups of children, and scores on ATLAS-PA were moderately to strongly related to other measures of phonological awareness. Information about item functioning was used to create an adaptive version of ATLAS-PA. Conclusions Findings suggest that ATLAS-PA is a valid measure of phonological awareness that can be used with children with typical development and with speech and/or language impairment. Its adaptive format minimizes testing time and provides opportunities for monitoring progress in preschool and early elementary classrooms. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.12931691.

Development of the Narrative Assessment Protocol-2: A Tool for Examining Young Children's Narrative Skill.

Purpose Narrative skill, a child's ability to create a temporally sequenced account of an experience or event, is considered an important domain of children's language development. Narrative skill is strongly predictive of later language and literacy and is emphasized in curricula and educational standards. However, the need to transcribe a child's narrative and the lack of psychometrically justified scoring methods have precluded broad consideration of narrative skill among practitioners. We describe the development and validation of the Narrative Assessment Protocol-2 (NAP-2), an assessment of narrative skill for children ages 3-6 years, which uses event-based frequency scoring directly from a video recording of a child's narrative. Method The NAP-2 underwent a rigorous development process involving creation of four wordless picture books and associated scripts and identification of a broad item pool, including aspects of narrative microstructure and macrostructure. We collected two narratives from each of 470 children using the NAP-2 elicitation materials and scored each with the 60 items in the initial item pool. Results Cross-validated exploratory factor analyses indicated a single narrative skill factor. Rasch measurement analysis led to selection of 20 items that maintained high reliability while having good fit to the model and no evidence of differential item functioning across books and gender. Conclusions The NAP-2 offers a psychometrically sound and easy-to-use assessment of narrative skill for children ages 3-6 years. The NAP-2 is available freely online for use by speech-language pathologists, educational practitioners, and researchers. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.11800779.

School readiness among children with varying histories of language difficulties.

This study tested the hypotheses that (a) persistent language difficulties during childhood would predict lower school readiness and (b) language difficulties present just prior to school entry would predict lower school readiness beyond any effects of persistence. The study involved examining indicators of school readiness collected at kindergarten for children exhibiting various histories of language ability based on language measures collected at 15, 24, 36, and 54 months by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development's Early Child Care Research Network. Children (N = 1,064) were classified according to whether they exhibited expressive or receptive language difficulties at each time point measured. The relation between persistence and timing of these difficulties to each kindergarten outcome was studied through a common factor approach for categorical outcomes. Persistence of language difficulties was not generally related to kindergarten outcomes. However, a robust effect was found for timing of language difficulties: Children who exhibited language difficulties at 54 months exhibited significantly depressed performance on measures of school readiness. Findings are discussed in terms of current policy and research concerning kindergarten readiness for children exhibiting risk.

Reading trajectories of children with language difficulties from preschool through fifth grade.

PURPOSE: The current work examined which theory of reading development, the cumulative reading trajectory or the compensatory trajectory of development, most accurately represents the reading trajectories of children with language difficulties (LD) relative to their peers with typical language (TL) skills. Specifically, initial levels of reading skills, overall rate of growth, and patterns of growth were examined. METHOD: Children were classified according to whether or not they exhibited LD at 54 months of age (LD n = 145; TL n = 653), using data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development's Early Child Care Research Network (see NICHD, 1993). A latent shape growth curve model was used to model reading skills at 4 time points from preschool through fifth grade. RESULTS: In comparison to children with TL, children with LD showed lower reading skills in preschool, but their overall reading growth was faster. All children developed the skills associated with reading more rapidly at earlier ages compared to later ages. Children with LD continued to exhibit reading skills that were substantially lower than those of children with TL during fifth grade. CONCLUSION: Results supported the compensatory trajectory of development. Speech-language pathologists are encouraged to adopt evidence-based practices in order to boost reading outcomes for children with LD beginning in preschool.

Measuring preschool attainment of print-concept knowledge: a study of typical and at-risk 3- to 5-year-old children using item response theory.

PURPOSE: This research determined the psychometric quality of a criterion-referenced measure that was thought to measure preschoolers' print-concept knowledge (PCK). METHOD: This measure, titled the Preschool Word and Print Awareness (PWPA), was examined using the partial credit model (PCM) to determine its suitability for use by clinicians, educators, and researchers. The extent to which the PWPA differentiated estimates of PCK for at-risk populations on the basis of socioeconomic status (SES) and language ability was also studied. The sample population was one-hundred twenty-eight 3- to 5-year-old children who varied in SES (middle, low) and language ability (typical language, language impairment) as derived from several previous or ongoing studies of emergent literacy intervention. RESULTS: The PCM fit analyses showed good fit between the overall data and the PCM, indicating that the PWPA provided a valid estimate of the latent PCK trait. SES and language ability were significant predictors of PWPA scores when age was used as a covariate. These results showed the PWPA to be suitable for measuring preschoolers' PCK and to be sensitive to differences among children as a function of risk status. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: The results show the PWPA to be an appropriate instrument for clinical and educational use with preschool children.

The development of self-regulation across early childhood.

The development of early childhood self-regulation is often considered an early life marker for later life successes. Yet little longitudinal research has evaluated whether there are different trajectories of self-regulation development across children. This study investigates the development of behavioral self-regulation between the ages of 3 and 7 years, with a direct focus on possible heterogeneity in the developmental trajectories, and a set of potential indicators that distinguish unique behavioral self-regulation trajectories. Across 3 diverse samples, 1,386 children were assessed on behavioral self-regulation from preschool through first grade. Results indicated that majority of children develop self-regulation rapidly during early childhood, and that children follow 3 distinct developmental patterns of growth. These 3 trajectories were distinguishable based on timing of rapid gains, as well as child gender, early language skills, and maternal education levels. Findings highlight early developmental differences in how self-regulation unfolds, with implications for offering individualized support across children. (PsycINFO Database Record

Age-Related Progressions in Story Structure in Young Children's Narratives.

Purpose: Prior theoretical and empirical work has referenced several broad stages of narrative development, particularly in terms of young children's understanding of story structure. However, there is considerable variation in how story structure has been defined and assessed across these studies. The aims of the present study were threefold: (a) to test the unidimensionality of items designed to assess story-structure knowledge, (b) to examine story-structure item difficulty levels, and (c) to examine age-related progressions on individual story-structure components across 3-, 4-, 5-, and 6-year-olds. Method: Participants included 386 children (M = 4.8 years, SD = 11.67 months) from the Narrative Assessment Protocol study (http://www.narrativeassessment.com/), which was designed to revise a new narrative assessment tool for children between the ages of 3 and 6 years. Results: Factor analysis indicated that 16 of 21 items reflecting story-structure knowledge constituted a unidimensional construct. Individual story-structure item analyses further revealed that establishing subgoals and tracking the overall goals in the stories were particularly challenging for 3- and 4-year-olds. Conclusion: These findings hold implications for refinement of theoretical models of story-structure emergence in early childhood.

Relations among maternal, child, and demographic factors and the persistence of preschool language impairment.

This research used the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care database of 1,364 children to identify children at 3 years of age who could generally be characterized as exhibiting specific language impairment. Seventy-three identified children were classified into 2 groups on the basis of standardized assessment of language skills at 4.5 years: children whose language impairment had resolved (n = 33) versus those whose language impairment persisted (n = 40). A logistic regression model using measures of maternal sensitivity, maternal depression, child externalizing behaviors, child health history, family income-to-needs ratio, and quality of home environment was used to predict group membership. Maternal sensitivity and maternal depression contributed significantly to the prediction model for group membership. Results are discussed in terms of theoretical and clinical implications.

Shared-reading dynamics: mothers' question use and the verbal participation of children with specific language impairment.

PURPOSE: In this study, the authors used sequential analysis to explore bidirectional and dynamic dependencies between mothers' question use and children's verbal participation during shared reading. METHOD: The sample was composed of mothers and their preschool-age children with specific language impairment (SLI; n = 14). Each mother and child extratextual utterance was transcribed and coded. Mother utterances were coded as "questions" or "other"; in turn, questions were coded for cognitive challenge and topic directiveness. Child utterances were coded as "verbal participation" (related to the book) or "other"; utterances designated as verbal participation were also coded for level of production (minimal, low, high) on the basis of their mean length of utterance. RESULTS: Descriptive data show variability in mothers' question use and some variability in the level of children's verbal participation during shared reading. However, mothers' question use did not facilitate higher levels of verbal participation by children. Furthermore, the level of children's verbal participation did not influence the cognitive challenge and topic directiveness of mothers' question use. CONCLUSIONS: The findings were contrary to hypotheses and collectively suggest potentially unique and challenging verbal dynamics between mothers and their young children with SLI during shared-reading experiences. Future directions for research are discussed.

Implementation processes associated with a home-based phonological awareness intervention for children with specific language impairment.

The implementation processes associated with a home-based phonological awareness intervention were observed for mothers and their 4-year-old children with specific language impairment (SLI). Mother-child dyads (n = 13) read books four times per week over 12 weeks; each book contained nine embedded phonological awareness (PA) tasks. Four hundred and ninety-eight book reading sessions were coded for three variables of interest: maternal support of concept development, quantity of maternal instructional support, and accuracy of children's responses to the PA tasks. Using growth curve modelling, results indicate that maternal support of concept development decreased over the course of the 12-week program, and the quantity of maternal supports changed considerably reflecting intra-individual differences among mothers. Both support of concept development and quantity of support decreased over the course of a given week. In addition, children's responses to the phonological awareness tasks significantly increased over the 12-week intervention. Overall, mothers did not provide support that consistently supported children's learning over time, and the increases in children's correct responses, although significant, were less than anticipated given the length of the intervention. These findings indicate that mothers may need additional supports when implementing emergent literacy programs with their children.

Conventional and piecewise growth modeling techniques: applications and implications for investigating Head Start children's early literacy learning.

This article reviews the mechanics of conventional and piecewise growth models to demonstrate the unique affordances of each technique for examining the nature and predictors of children's early literacy learning during the transition from preschool through first grade. Using the nationally representative Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES) data set, 1997 cohort, the authors show how piecewise models revealed discrete contributions of child, family, and classroom experiences to children's literacy skills within particular years, whereas conventional models, which considered the whole 3-year trajectory of change as a single outcome, revealed fewer of these nuanced contributions.