Associations between sex, systemic iron and inflammatory status and subcortical brain iron.

Brain iron increases in several neurodegenerative diseases are associated with disease progression. However, the causes of increased brain iron remain unclear. This study investigates relationships between subcortical iron, systemic iron and inflammatory status. Brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans and blood plasma samples were collected from cognitively healthy females (n = 176, mean age = 61.4 ± 4.5 years, age range = 28-72 years) and males (n = 152, mean age = 62.0 ± 5.1 years, age range = 32-74 years). Regional brain iron was quantified using quantitative susceptibility mapping. To assess systemic iron, haematocrit, ferritin and soluble transferrin receptor were measured, and total body iron index was calculated. To assess systemic inflammation, C-reactive protein (CRP), neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio (NLR), macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 (MCSF), interleukin 6 (IL6) and interleukin 1ß (IL1ß) were measured. We demonstrated that iron levels in the right hippocampus were higher in males compared with females, while iron in the right caudate was higher in females compared with males. There were no significant associations observed between subcortical iron levels and blood markers of iron and inflammatory status indicating that such blood measures are not markers of brain iron. These results suggest that brain iron may be regulated independently of blood iron and so directly targeting global iron change in the treatment of neurodegenerative disease may have differential impacts on blood and brain iron.

RNA aptamer reveals nuclear TDP-43 pathology is an early aggregation event that coincides with STMN-2 cryptic splicing and precedes clinical manifestation in ALS.

TDP-43 is an aggregation-prone protein which accumulates in the hallmark pathological inclusions of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). However, the analysis of deeply phenotyped human post-mortem samples has shown that TDP-43 aggregation, revealed by standard antibody methods, correlates poorly with symptom manifestation. Recent identification of cryptic-splicing events, such as the detection of Stathmin-2 (STMN-2) cryptic exons, are providing evidence implicating TDP-43 loss-of-function as a potential driving pathomechanism but the temporal nature of TDP-43 loss and its relation to the disease process and clinical phenotype is not known. To address these outstanding questions, we used a novel RNA aptamer, TDP-43APT, to detect TDP-43 pathology and used single molecule in situ hybridization to sensitively reveal TDP-43 loss-of-function and applied these in a deeply phenotyped human post-mortem tissue cohort. We demonstrate that TDP-43APT identifies pathological TDP-43, detecting aggregation events that cannot be detected by classical antibody stains. We show that nuclear TDP-43 pathology is an early event, occurring prior to cytoplasmic accumulation and is associated with loss-of-function measured by coincident STMN-2 cryptic splicing pathology. Crucially, we show that these pathological features of TDP-43 loss-of-function precede the clinical inflection point and are not required for region specific clinical manifestation. Furthermore, we demonstrate that gain-of-function in the form of extensive cytoplasmic accumulation, but not loss-of-function, is the primary molecular correlate of clinical manifestation. Taken together, our findings demonstrate implications for early diagnostics as the presence of STMN-2 cryptic exons and early TDP-43 aggregation events could be detected prior to symptom onset, holding promise for early intervention in ALS.

Cognition and brain iron deposition in whole grey matter regions and hippocampal subfields.

Regional brain iron accumulation is observed in many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, and is associated with cognitive decline. We explored associations between age, cognition and iron content in grey matter regions and hippocampal subfields in 380 participants of the Aberdeen children of the 1950s cohort and their first-generation relatives (aged 26-72 years). Participants underwent cognitive assessment at the time of MRI scanning. Quantitative susceptibility mapping of these MRI data was used to assess iron content in grey matter regions and in hippocampal subfields. Principle component analysis was performed on cognitive test scores to create a general cognition score. Spline analysis was used with the Akaike information criterion to determine if order 1, 2 or 3 natural splines were optimal for assessing non-linear relationships between regional iron and age. Multivariate linear models were used to assess associations between regional iron and cognition. Higher iron correlated with older age in the left putamen across all ages and in the right putamen of only participants over 58. Whereas a decrease in iron with older age was observed in the right thalamus and left pallidum across all ages. Right amygdala iron levels were associated with poorer general cognition scores and poorer immediate recall scores. Iron was not associated with any measures of cognitive performance in other regions of interest. Our results suggest that, whilst iron in some regions was associated with cognitive performance, there is an overall lack of association between regional iron content and cognitive ability in cognitively healthy individuals.

Amygdala TDP-43 pathology is associated with behavioural dysfunction and ferritin accumulation in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Background: Cognitive and behavioural symptoms associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal spectrum disorders (ALSFTSD) are thought to be driven, at least in part, by the pathological accumulation of TDP-43. Methods: Here we examine post-mortem tissue from six brain regions associated with cognitive and behavioural symptoms in a cohort of 30 people with sporadic ALS (sALS), a proportion of which underwent standardized neuropsychological behavioural assessment as part of the Edinburgh Cognitive ALS Screen (ECAS). Results: Overall, the behavioural screen performed as part of the ECAS predicted accumulation of pathological phosphorylated TDP-43 (pTDP-43) with 100% specificity and 86% sensitivity in behaviour-associated brain regions. Notably, of these regions, pathology in the amygdala was the most predictive correlate of behavioural dysfunction in sALS. In the amygdala of sALS patients, we show variation in morphology, cell type predominance, and severity of pTDP-43 pathology. Further, we demonstrate that the presence and severity of intra-neuronal pTDP-43 pathology, but not astroglial pathology, or phosphorylated Tau pathology, is associated with behavioural dysfunction. Cases were also evaluated using a TDP-43 aptamer (TDP-43APT), which revealed that pathology was not only associated with behavioural symptoms, but also with ferritin levels, a measure of brain iron. Conclusions: Intra-neuronal pTDP-43 and cytoplasmic TDP-43APT pathology in the amygdala is associated with behavioural symptoms in sALS. TDP-43APT staining intensity is also associated with increased ferritin, regardless of behavioural phenotype, suggesting that ferritin increases may occur upstream of clinical manifestation, in line with early TDP-43APT pathology, representing a potential region-specific imaging biomarker of early disease in ALS.

The impact of brain iron accumulation on cognition: A systematic review.

Iron is involved in many processes in the brain including, myelin generation, mitochondrial function, synthesis of ATP and DNA and the cycling of neurotransmitters. Disruption of normal iron homeostasis can result in iron accumulation in the brain, which in turn can partake in interactions which amplify oxidative damage. The development of MRI techniques for quantifying brain iron has allowed for the characterisation of the impact that brain iron has on cognition and neurodegeneration. This review uses a systematic approach to collate and evaluate the current literature which explores the relationship between brain iron and cognition. The following databases were searched in keeping with a predetermined inclusion criterion: Embase Ovid, PubMed and PsychInfo (from inception to 31st March 2020). The included studies were assessed for study characteristics and quality and their results were extracted and summarised. This review identified 41 human studies of varying design, which statistically assessed the relationship between brain iron and cognition. The most consistently reported interactions were in the Caudate nuclei, where increasing iron correlated poorer memory and general cognitive performance in adulthood. There were also consistent reports of a correlation between increased Hippocampal and Thalamic iron and poorer memory performance, as well as, between iron in the Putamen and Globus Pallidus and general cognition. We conclude that there is consistent evidence that brain iron is detrimental to cognitive health, however, more longitudinal studies will be required to fully understand this relationship and to determine whether iron occurs as a primary cause or secondary effect of cognitive decline.