RESUMO
BACKGROUND: The black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) is the most promising insect candidate for nutrient-recycling through bioconversion of organic waste into biomass, thereby improving sustainability of protein supplies for animal feed and facilitating transition to a circular economy. Contrary to conventional livestock, genetic resources of farmed insects remain poorly characterised. We present the first comprehensive population genetic characterisation of H. illucens. Based on 15 novel microsatellite markers, we genotyped and analysed 2862 individuals from 150 wild and captive populations originating from 57 countries on seven subcontinents. RESULTS: We identified 16 well-distinguished genetic clusters indicating substantial global population structure. The data revealed genetic hotspots in central South America and successive northwards range expansions within the indigenous ranges of the Americas. Colonisations and naturalisations of largely unique genetic profiles occurred on all non-native continents, either preceded by demographically independent founder events from various single sources or involving admixture scenarios. A decisive primarily admixed Polynesian bridgehead population serially colonised the entire Australasian region and its secondarily admixed descendants successively mediated invasions into Africa and Europe. Conversely, captive populations from several continents traced back to a single North American origin and exhibit considerably reduced genetic diversity, although some farmed strains carry distinct genetic signatures. We highlight genetic footprints characteristic of progressing domestication due to increasing socio-economic importance of H. illucens, and ongoing introgression between domesticated strains globally traded for large-scale farming and wild populations in some regions. CONCLUSIONS: We document the dynamic population genetic history of a cosmopolitan dipteran of South American origin shaped by striking geographic patterns. These reflect both ancient dispersal routes, and stochastic and heterogeneous anthropogenic introductions during the last century leading to pronounced diversification of worldwide structure of H. illucens. Upon the recent advent of its agronomic commercialisation, however, current human-mediated translocations of the black soldier fly largely involve genetically highly uniform domesticated strains, which meanwhile threaten the genetic integrity of differentiated unique local resources through introgression. Our in-depth reconstruction of the contemporary and historical demographic trajectories of H. illucens emphasises benchmarking potential for applied future research on this emerging model of the prospering insect-livestock sector.
Assuntos
Dípteros , Ração Animal/análise , Animais , Demografia , Dípteros/genética , Genética Populacional , Humanos , LarvaRESUMO
BACKGROUND: The black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae, Hermetia illucens) is renowned for its bioconversion ability of organic matter, and is the worldwide most widely used source of insect protein. Despite varying extensively in morphology, it is widely assumed that all black soldier flies belong to the same species, Hermetia illucens. We here screened about 600 field-collected and cultured flies from 39 countries and six biogeographic regions to test this assumption based on data for three genes (mitochondrial COI, nuclear ITS2 & 28S rDNA) and in order to gain insights into the phylogeography of the species. RESULTS: Our study reveals a surprisingly high level of intraspecific genetic diversity for the mitochondrial barcoding gene COI (divergences up to 4.9%). This level of variability is often associated with the presence of multiple species, but tested nuclear markers (ITS2 and 28S rDNA) were invariant and fly strain hybridization experiments under laboratory conditions revealed reproductive compatibility. COI haplotype diversity is not only very high in all biogeographic regions (56 distinct haplotypes in total), but also in breeding facilities and research centers from six continents (10 haplotypes: divergences up to 4.3%). The high genetic diversity in fly-breeding facilities is mostly likely due to many independent acquisitions of cultures via sharing and/or establishing new colonies from field-collected flies. However, explaining some of the observed diversity in several biogeographic regions is difficult given that the origin of the species is considered to be New World (32 distinct haplotypes) and one would expect severely reduced genetic diversity in the putatively non-native populations in the remaining biogeographic regions. However, distinct, private haplotypes are known from the Australasian (N = 1), Oriental (N = 4), and the Eastern Palearctic (N = 4) populations. We reviewed museum specimen records and conclude that the evidence for introductions is strong for the Western Palearctic and Afrotropical regions which lack distinct, private haplotypes. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the results of this paper, we urge the black soldier fly community to apply molecular characterization (genotyping) of the fly strains used in artificial fly-breeding and share these data in research publications as well as when sharing cultures. In addition, fast-evolving nuclear markers should be used to reconstruct the recent invasion history of the species.
Assuntos
Dípteros/metabolismo , Proteínas de Insetos/metabolismo , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Filogeografia , Animais , Cruzamento , Dípteros/genética , Dípteros/fisiologia , Variação Genética , Larva/metabolismo , ReproduçãoRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Anchored hybrid enrichment is a form of next-generation sequencing that uses oligonucleotide probes to target conserved regions of the genome flanked by less conserved regions in order to acquire data useful for phylogenetic inference from a broad range of taxa. Once a probe kit is developed, anchored hybrid enrichment is superior to traditional PCR-based Sanger sequencing in terms of both the amount of genomic data that can be recovered and effective cost. Due to their incredibly diverse nature, importance as pollinators, and historical instability with regard to subfamilial and tribal classification, Syrphidae (flower flies or hoverflies) are an ideal candidate for anchored hybrid enrichment-based phylogenetics, especially since recent molecular phylogenies of the syrphids using only a few markers have resulted in highly unresolved topologies. Over 6200 syrphids are currently known and uncovering their phylogeny will help us to understand how these species have diversified, providing insight into an array of ecological processes, from the development of adult mimicry, the origin of adult migration, to pollination patterns and the evolution of larval resource utilization. RESULTS: We present the first use of anchored hybrid enrichment in insect phylogenetics on a dataset containing 30 flower fly species from across all four subfamilies and 11 tribes out of 15. To produce a phylogenetic hypothesis, 559 loci were sampled to produce a final dataset containing 217,702 sites. We recovered a well resolved topology with bootstrap support values that were almost universally >95 %. The subfamily Eristalinae is recovered as paraphyletic, with the strongest support for this hypothesis to date. The ant predators in the Microdontinae are sister to all other syrphids. Syrphinae and Pipizinae are monophyletic and sister to each other. Larval predation on soft-bodied hemipterans evolved only once in this family. CONCLUSIONS: Anchored hybrid enrichment was successful in producing a robustly supported phylogenetic hypothesis for the syrphids. Subfamilial reconstruction is concordant with recent phylogenetic hypotheses, but with much higher support values. With the newly designed probe kit this analysis could be rapidly expanded with further sampling, opening the door to more comprehensive analyses targeting problem areas in syrphid phylogenetics and ecology.
Assuntos
Evolução Biológica , Dípteros/classificação , Animais , Dípteros/genética , Flores , Genoma , Sequenciamento de Nucleotídeos em Larga Escala , Filogenia , Polinização , Análise de Sequência de DNARESUMO
The taxonomic rank and phylogenetic relationships of the pipizine flower flies (Diptera: Syrphidae: Pipizini) were estimated based on DNA sequence data from three gene regions (COI, 28S and 18S) and 111 adult morphological characters. Pipizini has been treated as a member of the subfamily Eristalinae based on diagnostic adult morphological characteristics, while the larval feeding mode and morphology is shared with members of the subfamily Syrphinae. We analysed each dataset, both separately and combined, in a total evidence approach under maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood. To evaluate the influence of different alignment strategies of rDNA 28S and 18S genes on the resulting topologies, we compared the topologies inferred from a multiple alignment using fast Fourier transform (MAFFT) program with those topologies resulting from aligning the secondary structure of these rDNA genes. Total evidence analyses resolved pipizines as a sister group of the subfamily Syrphinae. Although the structural alignment and the MAFFT alignment differed in the inferred relationships of some clades and taxa, there was congruence in the placement of pipizines. The homogeneous morphology of the Pipizini clade in combination with their unique combination of characters among the Syrphidae suggest a change of rank to subfamily. Thus, we propose to divide Syrphidae into four subfamilies, including the subfamily Pipizinae stat. rev.
RESUMO
Three species of genus Cheilosia (Diptera, Syrphidae: Eristalinae) from China are described as new to science, Cheilosia bullabucca Barkalov & Ståhls sp. n., C. lamproptera Barkalov & Ståhls sp. n. and C. yunnanensis Barkalov & Ståhls sp. n. We provide species descriptions and keys for their identification. The phylogenetic placements of the taxa was estimated based on their morphological characteristics and by analysing the taxa under parsimony using a mtDNA COI sequence dataset including a comprehensive set of Palaearctic previously generated Cheilosia spp. sequences representing all major subgenera. Based on both their morphological affinities and the molecular data. The Chinese taxa were placed in the subgenera Eucartosyrphus (C. bullabucca), Cheilosia s. str. (C. oblonga), Floccocheila (C. versicolor) while C. yunnanensis was not resolved as member of Cheilosia s. str. based on DNA despite sharing morphological characteristics with the subgenus. As the name Cheilosia (Nephocheila) prima Barkalov & Cheng from China is a junior homonym of Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) prima Hunter, 1896 from the Nearctic region, for the Chinese species the new name Cheilosia (Nephocheila) primaria Barkalov & Ståhls nomen nov. is proposed.
Assuntos
Dípteros/classificação , Distribuição Animal , Estruturas Animais/anatomia & histologia , Estruturas Animais/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Animais , Tamanho Corporal , China , Dípteros/anatomia & histologia , Dípteros/genética , Dípteros/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Ecossistema , Feminino , Masculino , Tamanho do Órgão , FilogeniaRESUMO
Because of its importance as a pollinator and its potential economic usefulness for the biodegradation of organic animal waste, the genetic and phenotypic diversity of the drone fly, Eristalis tenax L. (Diptera: Syrphidae), was studied in both wild and captive populations from southeastern Europe. Wild specimens from a natural protected habitat (with low human impact), field crop habitat (semisynanthropic condition), and intensive pig farming habitat (synanthropic condition) were compared with a laboratory colony reared on artificial media An integrative approach was applied based on allozyme loci, cytochrome c oxidase I mitochondrial DNA, wing traits (size and shape), and abdominal color patterns. Our results indicate that the fourth and eighth generations of the laboratory colony show a severe lack of genetic diversity compared with natural populations. Reduced genetic diversity in subsequent generations (F4 and F8) of the laboratory colony was found to be linked with phenotypic divergence. Loss of genetic variability associated with phenotypic differentiation in laboratory samples suggests a founder effect, followed by stochastic genetic processes and inbreeding. Hence, our results have implications for captive bred Eristalis flies, which have been used in crop pollination and biodegradation of organic waste under synanthropic conditions.
Assuntos
Dípteros/anatomia & histologia , Dípteros/genética , Variação Genética , Endogamia , Proteínas de Insetos/genética , Animais , DNA Mitocondrial/genética , DNA Mitocondrial/metabolismo , Dípteros/fisiologia , Ecossistema , Complexo IV da Cadeia de Transporte de Elétrons/genética , Complexo IV da Cadeia de Transporte de Elétrons/metabolismo , Feminino , Aptidão Genética , Marcadores Genéticos , Proteínas de Insetos/metabolismo , Isoenzimas/genética , Isoenzimas/metabolismo , Masculino , Proteínas Mitocondriais/genética , Proteínas Mitocondriais/metabolismo , Dados de Sequência Molecular , Fenótipo , Pigmentação , Estações do Ano , Análise de Sequência de DNA , Espanha , Asas de Animais/anatomia & histologiaRESUMO
MtDNA COI barcodes have frequently been used in identification to associate an unknown life stage in insects with a known species. This study reports the discovery of hoverfly larvae in the fungal fruit bodies of Rhizopogonluteolus Fr. & Nordholm, 1817 in Finland. The identity of the larvae was firstly resolved using mtDNA COI barcodes generated from the larvae and tree-based identification confirming the species Pelecocera (Pelecocera) tricincta Meigen, 1822 and Pelecocera (Chamaesyrphus) caledonica (Collin, 1940) (Diptera, Syrphidae). Obtained pupae were reared into adult flies and produced the same two species. The morphological features of these mycophagous larvae are compared with those of other fungus-feeding hoverfly species. This study confirms Rhizopogonluteolus as fungal host for these Pelecocera species in the Western Palaearctic Region.
RESUMO
Phylogenetic relationships between two New World Syrphinae taxa (Diptera, Syrphidae), i.e. the highly diverse genus Ocyptamus and the large genus Toxomerus, were analysed based on molecular characters. The monophyly of both taxa was tested and the taxonomic status of included subgenera and species groups was examined. Toxomerus constitutes the monogeneric tribe Toxomerini with more than 140 described species, while Ocyptamus (tribe Syrphini) is a very diverse genus (over 300 spp.) with multiple recognised subgenera and species groups. Sequence data from three gene regions were used: the mitochondrial protein-coding gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and the nuclear 28S and 18S ribosomal RNA genes. The secondary structure of two expansion segments (D2, D3) of the ribosomal 28S RNA gene is presented for the family Syrphidae and used for the first time in a multiple sequence alignment. Molecular data were analysed using parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference. Toxomerus was always recovered as monophyletic within Ocyptamus, and relationships to other New World taxa such as Salpingogaster (Eosalpingogaster) were well-supported. Only the subgenera and species groups of Ocyptamus were consistently recovered as monophyletic lineages, thus the apparent non-monophyly of Ocyptamus demands reclassification of this clade.
Assuntos
Dípteros/classificação , Dípteros/genética , Conformação de Ácido Nucleico , RNA Ribossômico 28S/genética , Animais , Sequência de Bases , Teorema de Bayes , Complexo IV da Cadeia de Transporte de Elétrons/genética , Funções Verossimilhança , Modelos Moleculares , Dados de Sequência Molecular , Filogenia , RNA Ribossômico 18S/genética , Análise de Sequência de DNARESUMO
An ongoing investigation on the Greek hoverfly fauna using adult morphology has revealed new species within three genera. In this study, the knowledge of the Mediterranean hoverfly fauna has been enhanced by describing the following species: Cheilosia candida Vujic et Radenkovic sp. n. (Pindos Mountains), Paragus thracusi Radenkovic, Likov et Vujic sp. n. (Rhodope Mountains) and Psilota aegeae Vujic, Ståhls et Smit sp. n. (Lesvos island). Diagnosis of new species, as well as identification keys to the Mediterranean species of the subgenus Convocheila Barkalov of Cheilosia Meigen and the European species of the genus Psilota Meigen have been provided. Additionally, mtDNA COI barcodes for the members of the Psilota atra group (except Psilota nana Smit et Vujic) have been given. In addition, the taxonomic status of Psilota anthracina Meigen has been discussed.
Assuntos
Dípteros , Animais , Grécia , MitocôndriasRESUMO
The phytophagous hoverfly genus Merodon Meigen, 1803 (Diptera, Syrphidae), which comprises more than 160 species distributed in Palaearctic and Afrotropical regions, can be differentiated into multiple groups of species that harbor high levels of hidden diversity. In this work, the serrulatus species group of Merodon is revised, providing an illustrated key to species, a detailed discussion on the taxonomic characters and a morphological diagnosis, including also the first data about the preimaginal morphology of this species group. The study includes characteristics of the 13 species of the M. serrulatus group, along with the available distributional data. Moreover, descriptions are provided for seven new species, namely M. defectus Vujic, Likov & Radenkovic sp. nov., M. disjunctus Vujic, Likov & Radenkovic sp. nov., M. medium Vujic, Likov & Radenkovic sp. nov., M. nigrocapillatus Vujic, Likov & Radenkovic sp. nov., M. nigropunctum Vujic, Likov & Radenkovic sp. nov., M. opacus Vujic, Likov & Radenkovic sp. nov., and M. trianguloculus Vujic, Likov & Radenkovic sp. nov. In addition, the taxa M. serrulatus (Wiedemann in Meigen, 1822), M. bequaerti Hurkmans, 1993, M. hirsutus Sack, 1913, M. kawamurae Matsumura, 1916, M. sacki (Paramonov, 1936) and M. sophron Hurkmans, 1993 are redefined and redescribed. Following a detailed study of the type material sourced from different entomological collections, the status of all available taxa related to M. serrulatus is revised and a new synonymy is proposed: M. tener Sack, 1913 syn. nov. (junior synonym of M. serrulatus). The identity of M. trizonus (Szilády, 1940) could not be assessed as the type specimens are lost. Thus, the name M. trizonus is considered as nomen dubium. The monophyly and composition of this species group are assessed through Maximum Parsimony and Maximum Likelihood analyses of the mitochondrial COI and nuclear 28S rRNA gene sequences.
RESUMO
Phylogenetic relationships of genera Allograpta, Sphaerophoria and Exallandra (Diptera, Syrphidae) were analyzed based on sequence data from the mitochondrial protein-coding gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and the nuclear 28S and 18S ribosomal RNA genes. The three genera are members of the subfamily Syrphinae, where nearly all members feed as larvae on soft-bodied Hemiptera and other arthropods. Phytophagous species have recently been discovered in two subgenera of Allograpta, sg Fazia and a new subgenus from Costa Rica. Phylogenetic analyses of the combined datasets were performed using parsimony, under static alignment and direct optimization, maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference. Congruent topologies obtained from all the analyses indicate paraphyly of the genus Allograpta with respect to Sphaerophoria and Exallandra. Exallandra appears embedded in the genus Sphaerophoria, and both genera are placed within Allograpta. The distribution of phytophagous taxa in Allograpta indicates that plant feeding evolved at least twice in this group.
Assuntos
Dípteros/genética , Evolução Molecular , Filogenia , Animais , Teorema de Bayes , DNA Mitocondrial/genética , Dípteros/classificação , Complexo IV da Cadeia de Transporte de Elétrons/genética , Comportamento Alimentar , Genes de Insetos , Genes Mitocondriais , Genes de RNAr , Funções Verossimilhança , Mitocôndrias/genética , Modelos Genéticos , RNA Ribossômico 18S/genética , RNA Ribossômico 28S/genética , Alinhamento de Sequência , Análise de Sequência de DNA , Especificidade da EspécieRESUMO
The family Syrphidae (Diptera) is traditionally divided into three subfamilies. The aim of this study was to address the monophyly of the tribes within the subfamily Syrphinae (virtually all with predaceous habits), as well as the phylogenetic placement of particular genera using molecular characters. Sequence data from the mitochondrial protein-coding gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and the nuclear 28S ribosomal RNA gene of 98 Syrphinae taxa were analyzed using optimization alignment to explore phylogenetic relationships among included taxa. Volucella pellucens was used as outgroup, and representatives of the tribe Pipizini (Eristalinae), with similar larval feeding mode, were also included. Congruence of our results with current tribal classification of Syrphinae is discussed. Our results include the tribe Toxomerini resolved as monophyletic but placed in a clade with genera Ocyptamus and Eosalpingogaster. Some genera traditionally placed into Syrphini were resolved outside of this tribe, as the sister groups to other tribes or genera. The tribe Bacchini was resolved into several different clades. We recovered Paragini as a monophyletic group, and sister group of the genus Allobaccha. The present results highlight the need of a reclassification of Syrphinae. © The Willi Hennig Society 2008.
RESUMO
The Palaearctic Merodon geniculatus species group (Diptera, Syrphidae: Merodontini) currently comprises six Western Mediterranean species and four species with Eastern Mediterranean distribution. One of this group species, Merodon albifasciatus Macquart, 1842, is the only Merodon species listed from the Oriental Region. We discovered the lost holotype, which fit morphologically with European Merodon females of the M. albifasciatus species complex confirmed here and that occurs in the Palaearctic region. An integrative approach to the taxonomy of M. albifasciatus based on morphological and molecular evidences revealed the existence of two additional closely-related species in the Eastern Mediterranean area, M. luteofasciatus Vujic, Radenkovic Ståhls sp. nov. and M. neofasciatus Ståhls Vujic sp. nov.. The females of these three species can only be separated by molecular and distributional data. With the aim of stabilising species concepts within the complex, the taxon distributed in mainland Greece, including the Peloponnese was associated to the old female holotype of M. albifasciatus. The identity of Merodon fractipes Paramonov, described from Rhodes Island (Greece) as subspecies of M. geniculatus Strobl in Czerny Strobl, could not be resolved as the type specimen is lost. Thus the name M. fractipes is suppressed as nomen dubium. We discuss the distribution of the species of M. albifasciatus complex, identify host plants of M. neofasciatus, and provide an identification key to males of Eastern Mediterranean species of Merodon geniculatus group.
Assuntos
Dípteros , Distribuição Animal , Animais , Feminino , Grécia , Masculino , PlantasRESUMO
An ongoing study of the genus Merodon Meigen, 1803 in the Republic of South Africa (RSA) has revealed the existence of new species related to M. melanocerus Bezzi, 1915. The M. melanocerus subgroup belongs to the Afrotropical lineage of the M. desuturinus group. Revision of all available material from museums and detailed analyses of newly -collected specimens from our own expeditions to RSA resulted in delimitation of five species: M. capensis Hurkmans sp. n., M. commutabilis Radenkovic et Vujic sp. n., M. drakonis Vujic et Radenkovic sp. n., M. flavocerus Hurkmans sp. n. and M. melanocerus. In addition to classical morphological characters, sequences of the mitochondrial COI gene are provided for four related taxa. Results of molecular phylogenetic analyses supports monophyly of the M. desuturinus group and confirmed delimitation between species. Links between Palaearctic and Afrotropical faunas of this group, as well as possible evolutionary paths, are discussed. Based on phylogenetic analyses, four lineages (putative subgenera) have been recognized within the genus Merodon; besides the three previously established ones, albifrons+desuturinus, aureus (sensu lato) and avidus-nigritarsis, one new lineage named natans is distinguished.
Assuntos
Distribuição Animal , Evolução Biológica , Dípteros/classificação , Genes Mitocondriais , Animais , Teorema de Bayes , Dípteros/genética , Complexo IV da Cadeia de Transporte de Elétrons/metabolismo , Feminino , Geografia , Masculino , Museus , Filogenia , Reprodutibilidade dos Testes , África do Sul , Especificidade da Espécie , Manejo de EspécimesRESUMO
The Palaearctic species of the Cheilosia caerulescens group (Diptera: Syrphidae) are revised in this work. The species group belongs to the genus Cheilosia subgenus Taeniocheilosia Oldenberg. One new species is described from north Caucasus, Cheilosia (Taeniocheilosia) circassica sp. n.Cheilosia primulae Hering is established as a junior synonym of Cheilosia laeviventris Loew. Four lectotype designations are made. The species of the Cheilosia caerulescens group are redescribed and illustrated, and a table of diagnostic characters and an identification key to species are provided. MtDNA COI barcodes were generated for several specimens of C. (T.) caerulescens Meigen and other Cheilosia (Taeniocheilosia) and Cheilosia s. str. taxa. Parsimony and maximum likelihood analyses did not place the morphologically similar C. hercyniae Loew in the C. caerulescens group but among other Cheilosia (Taeniocheilosia) taxa. The following eight taxa are included in the Cheilosia (T.) caerulescens group of species: Cheilosia armeniaca Stackelberg, 1960, C. caerulescens caerulescens (Meigen, 1822), C. caerulescens calculosa Skufjin, 1977, C. circassica sp. n., C. herculana Bradescu, 1982, C. kerteszi Szilády, 1938, C. laeviventris Loew, 1857, and C. venosa Loew, 1857.
RESUMO
The myrmecophile larva of the dipteran taxon Nothomicrodon Wheeler is rediscovered, almost a century after its original description and unique report. The systematic position of this dipteran has remained enigmatic due to the absence of reared imagos to confirm indentity. We also failed to rear imagos, but we scrutinized entire nests of the Brazilian arboreal dolichoderine ant Azteca chartifex which, combined with morphological and molecular studies, enabled us to establish beyond doubt that Nothomicrodon belongs to the Phoridae (Insecta: Diptera), not the Syrphidae where it was first placed, and that the species we studied is an endoparasitoid of the larvae of A. chartifex, exclusively attacking sexual female (gyne) larvae. Northomicrodon parasitism can exert high fitness costs to a host colony. Our discovery adds one more case to the growing number of phorid taxa known to parasitize ant larvae and suggests that many others remain to be discovered. Our findings and literature review confirm that the Phoridae is the only taxon known that parasitizes both adults and the immature stages of different castes of ants, thus threatening ants on all fronts.
Assuntos
Formigas/parasitologia , Dípteros/fisiologia , Interações Hospedeiro-Parasita/fisiologia , Larva/parasitologia , Animais , Brasil , Feminino , Comportamento Predatório/fisiologia , Simbiose/fisiologia , Árvores/fisiologiaRESUMO
We investigated the phylogeographic patterns of Merodon species (Diptera, Syrphidae) in the Eastern Mediterranean. Ten species were sampled on five different islands and mainland sites as a minimum. All samples were screened for their mtDNA COI barcode haplotype diversity, and for some samples, we additionally generated genomic fingerprints. The recently established zoogeographic distribution categories classify these species as having (1) Balkan distribution; (2) Anatolian distribution; (3) continental areas and large islands distribution; and (4) with wide distribution. The ancestral haplotypes and their geographical localities were estimated with statistical parsimony (TCS). TCS networks identified as the ancestral haplotype samples that originated from localities situated within the distributional category of the species in question. Strong geographical haplotype structuring was detected for many Merodon species. We were particularly interested to test the relative importance of current (Aegean Sea) and past Mid-Aegean Trench) barriers to dispersal for Merodon flies in the Aegean. We employed phylogenetic ß-diversity (Pß total) and its partition in replacement (Pß repl) and richness difference (Pß rich) to test the importance of each explanatory variable (interisland distance, MAT, and island area) in interisland differences using partial Mantel tests and hierarchical partitioning of variation. ß-Analyses confirmed the importance of both current and past barriers to dispersal on the evolution of group. Current interisland distance was particularly important to explain the replacement of haplotypes, while the MAT was driving differences in richness of haplotypes, revealing the MAT as a strong past barrier whose effects are still visible today in the phylogenetic history of the clade in the Aegean. These results support the hypothesis of a highly restricted dispersal and gene flow among Merodon populations between islands since late Pleistocene. Additionally, patterns of phylogeographic structure deduced from haplotype connections and ISSR genome fingerprinting data revealed a few putative cases of human-mediated transfers of Merodon spp.
RESUMO
The Merodon aureus species group (Diptera: Syrphidae: Eristalinae) comprises a number of different sub-groups and species complexes. In this study we focus on resolving the taxonomic status of the entity previously identified as M. cinereus B, here identified as M. atratus species complex. We used an integrative approach based on morphological descriptions, combined with supporting characters that were obtained from molecular analyses of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I gene as well as from geometric morphometry of wing and surstylus shapes and environmental niche comparisons. All applied data and methods distinguished and supported three morphologically cryptic species: M. atratus stat. nov., M. virgatus sp. nov. and M. balkanicus sp. nov., which constitute the M. atratus species complex. We present an identification key for the sub-groups and species complexes of the M. aureus species group occurring in Europe, describe the taxa and discuss the utility of the applied methods for species delimitation. The estimated divergence times for the species splits of these taxa coincide with the Pleistocene Günz-Mindel interglaciation and the Great interglaciation (between the Ris and Mindel glacial periods).
Assuntos
Evolução Biológica , Dípteros/classificação , Complexo IV da Cadeia de Transporte de Elétrons/genética , Genes Mitocondriais/genética , Asas de Animais/anatomia & histologia , Animais , Sequência de Bases , Dípteros/anatomia & histologia , Dípteros/genética , Olho/anatomia & histologia , Feminino , Masculino , Mitocôndrias/enzimologia , Filogenia , Análise de Sequência de DNARESUMO
The phylogenetic relationships of the tribe Rhingiini and the genus Cheilosia (Diptera, Syrphidae) were investigated using morphological and molecular characters. The genus Cheilosia is one of the most diverse lineages of hoverflies (Syrphidae). The mitochondrial protein coding gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI), and the D2-3 region of the nuclear 28S rRNA gene were chosen for sequencing, and morphological characters were scored for both adults and immature stages. The combined dataset included 56 ingroup taxa. The datasets were analyzed separately and in conjunction, using both static and dynamic alignment under the parsimony criterion. The aim of the study was to assess the phylogenetic relationships of the tribe Rhingiini, and to explore if the subgenera of Cheilosia were supported as monophyletic clades. Results showed that the monophyly of subtribes of Rhingiini remained ambiguous, especially due to unstable phylogenetic placements of the genera Portevinia and Rhingia. We recovered most subgenera of Cheilosia as monophyletic clades. Dynamic alignment, using the optimization alignment program POY, always recovered more parsimonious topologies under all parameter weighting schemes, than did parsimony analyses using static alignment and analyzed with NONA.
RESUMO
A checklist of the Opetiidae and Platypezidae (Diptera) recorded from Finland.