Latent classes of childhood trauma exposure predict the development of behavioral health outcomes in adolescence and young adulthood.

BACKGROUND: To develop latent classes of exposure to traumatic experiences before the age of 13 years in an urban community sample and to use these latent classes to predict the development of negative behavioral outcomes in adolescence and young adulthood. METHOD: A total of 1815 participants in an epidemiologically based, randomized field trial as children completed comprehensive psychiatric assessments as young adults. Reported experiences of nine traumatic experiences before age 13 years were used in a latent class analysis to create latent profiles of traumatic experiences. Latent classes were used to predict psychiatric outcomes at age ⩾13 years, criminal convictions, physical health problems and traumatic experiences reported in young adulthood. RESULTS: Three latent classes of childhood traumatic experiences were supported by the data. One class (8% of sample), primarily female, was characterized by experiences of sexual assault and reported significantly higher rates of a range of psychiatric outcomes by young adulthood. Another class (8%), primarily male, was characterized by experiences of violence exposure and reported higher levels of antisocial personality disorder and post-traumatic stress. The final class (84%) reported low levels of childhood traumatic experiences. Parental psychopathology was related to membership in the sexual assault group. CONCLUSIONS: Classes of childhood traumatic experiences predict specific psychiatric and behavioral outcomes in adolescence and young adulthood. The long-term adverse effects of childhood traumas are primarily concentrated in victims of sexual and non-sexual violence. Gender emerged as a key covariate in the classes of trauma exposure and outcomes.

Smoking quit success genotype score predicts quit success and distinct patterns of developmental involvement with common addictive substances.

Genotype scores that predict relevant clinical outcomes may detect other disease features and help direct prevention efforts. We report data that validate a previously established v1.0 smoking cessation quit success genotype score and describe striking differences in the score in individuals who display differing developmental trajectories of use of common addictive substances. In a cessation study, v1.0 genotype scores predicted ability to quit with P=0.00056 and area under receiver-operating characteristic curve 0.66. About 43% vs 13% quit in the upper vs lower genotype score terciles. Latent class growth analyses of a developmentally assessed sample identified three latent classes based on substance use. Higher v1.0 scores were associated with (a) higher probabilities of participant membership in a latent class that displayed low use of common addictive substances during adolescence (P=0.0004) and (b) lower probabilities of membership in a class that reported escalating use (P=0.001). These results indicate that: (a) we have identified genetic predictors of smoking cessation success, (b) genetic influences on quit success overlap with those that influence the rate at which addictive substance use is taken up during adolescence and (c) individuals at genetic risk for both escalating use of addictive substances and poor abilities to quit may provide especially urgent focus for prevention efforts.

Mood and anxiety disorders and their association with non-medical prescription opioid use and prescription opioid-use disorder: longitudinal evidence from the National Epidemiologic Study on Alcohol and Related Conditions.

BACKGROUND: Non-medical use of prescription opioids represents a national public health concern of growing importance. Mood and anxiety disorders are highly associated with non-medical prescription opioid use. The authors examined longitudinal associations between non-medical prescription opioid use and opioid disorder due to non-medical opioid use and mood/anxiety disorders in a national sample, examining evidence for precipitation, self-medication and general shared vulnerability as pathways between disorders. METHOD: Data were drawn from face-to-face surveys of 34 653 adult participants in waves 1 and 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Logistic regression models explored the temporal sequence and evidence for the hypothesized pathways. RESULTS: Baseline lifetime non-medical prescription opioid use was associated with incidence of any mood disorder, major depressive disorder (MDD), bipolar disorder, any anxiety disorder and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD in wave 2, adjusted for baseline demographics, other substance use, and co-morbid mood/anxiety disorders). Lifetime opioid disorder was not associated with any incident mood/anxiety disorders. All baseline lifetime mood disorders and GAD were associated with incident non-medical prescription opioid use at follow-up, adjusted for demographics, co-morbid mood/anxiety disorders, and other substance use. Baseline lifetime mood disorders, MDD, dysthymia and panic disorder were associated with incident opioid disorder due to non-medical prescription opioid use at follow-up, adjusted for the same covariates. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that precipitation, self-medication as well as shared vulnerability are all viable pathways between non-medical prescription opioid use and opioid disorder due to non-medical opioid use and mood/anxiety disorders.

Suspected causal association between cocaine use and occurrence of panic.

AIM: To estimate a suspected causal association between cocaine use and the occurrence of panic. METHODS: Data are from an epidemiologic sample of school-attending youths enrolled in primary school who were traced, rerecruited, and assessed via standardized interviews in young adulthood during 2000-2002. A total of 1,692 young adults comprised the analysis sample. Occurrences of panic and cocaine use were assessed in young adulthood, via standardized item sets from the Diagnostic Interview Schedule. A brief assessment of panic experiences had also been made when the youths were in early adolescence. RESULTS: With statistical adjustment for important covariates, we found a modestly excess occurrence of panic attack-like experiences among those who had used cocaine at least once, relative to occurrence among young people who never had used cocaine (estimated odds ratio, OR = 1.9; p = .014 before exclusion of 288 with early onset panic attack-like experiences; p = .005 after this exclusion). DISCUSSION: The main finding of this study was an association linking cocaine use and panic attack-like experiences, which was more modest than was observed in study samples that included older adults.

Evidence for a hallucinogen dependence syndrome developing soon after onset of hallucinogen use during adolescence.

This study uses latent class methods and multiple regression to shed light on hypothesized hallucinogen dependence syndromes experienced by young people who have recently initiated hallucinogen use. It explores possible variation in risk. The study sample, identified within public-use data files of the 1999 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA), consists of 1186 recent-onset hallucinogen users, defined as having initiated hallucinogen use within 24 months of assessment (median elapsed time since onset of use -12 to 13 months). The recent-onset users in this sample were age 12 to 21 at the time of assessment and were between the ages of 10 and 21 at the time of their first hallucinogen use. The NHSDA included items to assess seven clinical features often associated with hallucinogen dependence, which were used in latent class modelling. Latent class analysis, in conjunction with prior theory, supports a three-class solution, with 2% of recent-onset users in a class that resembles a hallucinogen dependence syndrome, whereas 88% expressed few or no clinical features of dependence. The remaining 10% may reflect users who are at risk for dependence or in an early stage of dependence. Results from latent class regressions indicate that susceptibility to rapid transition from first hallucinogen use to onset of this hallucinogen dependence syndrome might be influenced by hallucinogenic compounds taken (for example, estimated relative risk, RR = 2.4, 95% CI = 1.6, 7.6 for users of MDMA versus users of LSD). Excess risk of rapid transition did not appear to depend upon age, sex, or race/ethnicity.

Testing the Electronic Personal Health Record Acceptance Model by Nurses for Managing Their Own Health: A Cross-sectional Survey.

BACKGROUND: To our knowledge, no evidence is available on health care professionals' use of electronic personal health records (ePHRs) for their health management. We therefore focused on nurses' personal use of ePHRs using a modified technology acceptance model. OBJECTIVES: To examine (1) the psychometric properties of the ePHR acceptance model, (2) the associations of perceived usefulness, ease of use, data privacy and security protection, and perception of self as health-promoting role models to nurses' own ePHR use, and (3) the moderating influences of age, chronic illness and medication use, and providers' use of electronic health record (EHRs) on the associations between the ePHR acceptance constructs and ePHR use. METHODS: A convenience sample of registered nurses, those working in one of 12 hospitals in the Maryland and Washington, DC areas and members of the nursing informatics community (AMIA and HIMSS), were invited to respond to an anonymous online survey; 847 responded. Multiple logistic regression identified associations between the model constructs and ePHR use, and the moderating effect. RESULTS: Overall, ePHRs were used by 47%. Sufficient reliability for all scales was found. Three constructs were significantly related to nurses' own ePHR use after adjusting for covariates: usefulness, data privacy and security protection, and health-promoting role model. Nurses with providers that used EHRs who perceived a higher level of data privacy and security protection had greater odds of ePHR use than those whose providers did not use EHRs. Older nurses with a higher self-perception as health-promoting role models had greater odds of ePHR use than younger nurses. CONCLUSIONS: Nurses who use ePHRs for their personal health might promote adoption by the general public by serving as health-promoting role models. They can contribute to improvements in patient education and ePHR design, and serve as crucial resources when working with their individual patients.

Resident physician substance use, by specialty.

OBJECTIVE: This study compares substance use by medical specialty among resident physicians. METHOD: The authors estimated the prevalence of substance use of 11 medical specialties from a national sample of 1,754 U.S. resident physicians. RESULTS: Emergency medicine and psychiatry residents showed higher rates of substance use than residents in other specialties. Emergency medicine residents reported more current use of cocaine and marijuana, and psychiatry residents reported more current use of benzodiazepines and marijuana. Contrary to recent concerns, anesthesiology residents did not have high rates of substance use. Family/general practice, internal medicine, and obstetrics/gynecology were not among the higher or lower use groups for most substances. Surgeons had lower rates of substance use except for alcohol. Pediatric and pathology residents were least likely to be substance users. CONCLUSIONS: The authors' previous research indicates that residents overall have lower rates of substance use than their age peers in society. Yet resident substance use patterns do differ by specialty. Residents in some specialties are more likely to use specific classes of drugs, to use a greater number of drug classes, and to be daily users of alcohol or cigarettes.

"Unequal opportunity": neighbourhood disadvantage and the chance to buy illegal drugs.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: This study investigates whether subgroups of people living in disadvantaged neighbourhoods may be more likely to come into contact with drug dealers as compared with persons living in more advantaged areas, with due attention to male-female and race-ethnicity differences. DESIGN: Standardised survey data collected using stratified, multistage area probability sampling. SETTING: United States of America, 1998. PARTICIPANTS: Nationally representative sample of household residents age 12 or older (n = 25 500). MAIN RESULTS: Evidence supports an inference that women are less likely to be approached by someone selling illegal drugs. The study found no more than modest and generally null racial and ethnicity differences, even for residents living within socially disadvantaged neighbourhoods, where chances to buy illegal drugs are found to be more common. CONCLUSIONS: Limitations of survey data always merit attention, but this study evidence lends support to the inference that physical and social characteristics of a neighbourhood can set the stage for opportunities to become involved with drugs.

Relationship of specialty and access to substance use among registered nurses: an exploratory analysis.

Substance use patterns among nurses and women in general are understudied, especially how substance use relates to the work environment. Using an anonymous survey mailed to a population based random sample of registered nurses, this study presents the first empirical evidence that working in a critical care specialty combined with easy workplace access to drugs is associated with a high likelihood of illicit drug use among nurses (O.R. = 6.2).

Collecting substance use data with an anonymous mailed survey.

Because mailed surveys minimize personal contact, they are useful for collecting sensitive data on substance use, as long as the problems of achieving adequate response rates can be conquered. To address these issues, we report on an anonymous mailed survey of substance use with a 78% response rate, including data collection and survey methods. Analysis of sociodemographic effects on responding found certain groups required additional contacts. Substance use estimates were not affected by non-response bias, suggesting that anonymous mailed surveys can be a feasible means of collecting data on substance use.

Job strain and non-medical drug use.

In this study, the Karasek demand/control formulation of job strain, initially used in research on cardiovascular health, has been extended to drug use. Full-time nurses (n = 2375), all participants in a national anonymous mailed survey, were an estimated 1.5 times more likely to be a recent non-medical drug user if they had a high strain job as compared to nurses in low strain jobs. The psychosocial work environment might influence whether nurses become and remain non-medical drug users, over and above the risk-modifying functions related to nurses' individual vulnerabilities and their greater access to controlled substances.

Physically demanding work and inadequate sleep, pain medication use, and absenteeism in registered nurses.

Pain and fatigue are early indicators of musculoskeletal strain. This study examined associations among eight physical demands and inadequate sleep, pain medication use, and absenteeism in 3727 working registered nurses (RNs). Among the demands, awkward head/arm postures were associated with each outcome (inadequate sleep: odds ratio [OR], 1.96; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.41 to 2.72; pain medication: OR, 1.65; CI, 1.12 to 2.24; absenteeism: OR, 1.60; CI, 1.26 to 2.04). A dose-response relationship was present; as the number of demands increased, the likelihood of each outcome increased. Odds ratios for eight demands versus no demands were as follows: inadequate sleep (OR, 5.88; CI, 2.30 to 15.50), pain medication (OR, 3.30; CI, 1.34 to 8.11), and absenteeism (OR, 2.13; CI, 1.15 to 3.94). Adjustment using multiple logistic regression for lifestyle, demographics, and work schedule did little to alter the findings. Interventions to promote nurses' health should limit the physical demands of the work.

Prescription-type drug misuse and workplace access among nurses.

Access to prescription-type substances in the workplace is a unique feature of the practice of health professionals. Empirical data on the relation between workplace access to substances and prescription-type drug misuse among nurses are limited. Using an anonymous mailed survey, data were collected on three dimensions of access: perceived availability, frequency of administration, and degree of workplace control over storage and dispensing of substances. Each dimension was independently associated with increased use. When these dimensions were combined into an index, nurses with very easy access were most likely to have misused prescription-type drugs (adjusted Odds Ratio = 4.18; 95% Confidence Interval: 1.70-10.30). Level of knowledge of controlled substances was also associated with use, but did not explain the relation between access and use.

Physician substance use by medical specialty.

Self-reported past year use of alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, cocaine, and two controlled prescription substances (opiates, benzodiazepines); and self-reported lifetime substance abuse or dependence was estimated and compared for 12 specialties among 5,426 physicians participating in an anonymous mailed survey. Logistic regression models controlled for demographic and other characteristics that might explain observed specialty differences. Emergency medicine physicians used more illicit drugs. Psychiatrists used more benzodiazepines. Comparatively, pediatricians had overall low rates of use, as did surgeons, except for tobacco smoking. Anesthesiologists had higher use only for major opiates. Self-reported substance abuse and dependence were at highest levels among psychiatrists and emergency physicians, and lowest among surgeons. With evidence from studies such as this one, a specialty can organize prevention programs to address patterns of substance use specific to that specialty, the specialty characteristics of its members, and their unique practice environments that may contribute risk of substance abuse and dependence.

Work schedule characteristics and substance use in nurses.

BACKGROUND: In order to promote the health of nurses while maintaining performance and patient care safety standards, better research bases on the association of work organization with health are needed. METHODS: Work schedule components (shift, shift length, weekends, and overtime) in a nationally representative sample of employed registered nurses participating in an anonymous mailed survey (n = 3,917) were examined in relation to past year alcohol, smoking and drug use. RESULTS: Schedule components examined separately showed modest associations with substance use. Combinations of shift and shift length interacted in association with substance use, so that nurses working night shifts > 8 hr had the highest likelihood of alcohol use and smoking and those working rotating shifts > 8 hr were more likely to report alcohol use. Among women, the likelihood of substance use under adverse conditions varied by family/home demands. CONCLUSIONS: Administrative attention to the interplay of work schedules on workers along with consideration of competing family/home demands could lead to more healthful scheduling. In addition to substance use, working longer night and rotating shifts might be related to other health behaviors and conditions that should be examined in the future.

Substance use among nurses: differences between specialties.

OBJECTIVES: Valid data on factors that increase a health care worker's likelihood of substance use are integral in ensuring professional standards and quality health care for consumers. This study explored the association between nursing specialty and past-year substance use. METHODS: In an anonymous mailed survey, a balanced stratified sample of registered nurses (n = 4438) reported their use of marijuana, cocaine, and prescription-type drugs, as well as cigarette smoking and binge drinking. RESULTS: Prevalence of use of all substances was 32%. Rates varied by specialty, even when sociodemographics were controlled. Compared with nurses in women's health, pediatrics, and general practice, emergency nurses were 3.5 times as likely to use marijuana or cocaine (odds ratio [OR] = 3.5; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.5, 8.2); oncology and administration nurses were twice as likely to engage in binge drinking; and psychiatric nurses were most likely to smoke (OR = 2.4; 95% CI = 1.6, 3.8). No specialty differences appeared for prescription-type drug use. CONCLUSIONS: Certain nursing specialties were more likely than others to be associated with substance use. The differences were not explained by demographic characteristics. Inasmuch as a comparison of these results for nurses with prior work on physicians found considerable agreement by specialty, preventive initiatives should consider inter-disciplinary approaches to substance use education.

Similarities of substance use between medical and nursing specialties.

This paper reviews and compares alcohol and other drug involvement findings in two professions, medicine and nursing, by specialty. Health care providers are naturally subgrouped by specialty, as this is a major work environment factor. The evidence indicates an association exists between practicing in certain medical or nursing specialties and substance use. In addition, similarities in specialty membership and substance use across medicine and nursing suggests there may be common risk factors related to substance use that could be addressed using interdisciplinary approaches.

Substance use by surgical residents and students entering surgery.

We studied the use of alcohol, tobacco, and nine unprescribed or illegal substances by surgical residents and medical students accepted into surgical programs. With the exception of alcohol, surgical residents had less lifetime experience and used less than other residents or nonmedical college graduates. Students entering surgery had used these substances more frequently and were more likely to be using them regularly than were residents. Residency directors need to be aware of the change in attitude and use patterns of present residents as compared with those of the past.

Workplace access, negative proscriptions, job strain, and substance use in registered nurses.

BACKGROUND: Both occupational conditions and individual factors have been shown as contributors to the likelihood of substance use among health professionals. OBJECTIVES: To assess the use of Winick's (1974) model for explaining nurses' substance use, which asserts that groups with access to substances, freedom from negative proscriptions, and role strain have an increased likelihood of drug dependence. METHODS: Data were analyzed from the 3,600 working nurses participating in the Nurses Worklife and Health Study, a nationally representative survey of registered nurses in the United States. A structural equation model was tested fitting workplace access to substances (availability, frequency of administration, and knowledge), freedom from negative proscriptions (internal: religiosity; external: social network), and role strain (job demands and depressive symptoms) to the frequency of past year alcohol, marijuana/cocaine, and prescription-type drug use. RESULTS: Nurses were more likely to use substances when workplace access to substances increased (p < 0.001), with social networks containing more drug users, and when religiosity decreased (p < 0.001). Role strain (measured through job demands and depressive symptoms) also was related to substance use. Depressive symptoms were related directly and negatively to substance use (p < 0.01), whereas job demands were related indirectly to substance use through depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Winick's model has use in explaining nurses' substance use. Research and preventive initiatives should consider the multidimensional aspects of substance use in nurses.

Resident physician substance use in the United States.

A national survey was conducted to determine patterns of drug use among 3000 American resident physicians. Sixty percent (1785) of the residents surveyed responded. This report evaluates the prevalence of drug use among the respondents, when they initiated drug use, and their reasons for current use. Substance use rates are compared with other studies of resident physicians and with a sample of their nonphysician age peers surveyed the same year. Heavy substance use patterns were not observed among resident physicians. They had significantly lower rates of use for most psychoactive substances than their peers in the general population but did report higher rates of past-month use of alcohol and benzodiazepines. A sizable minority began using benzodiazepines and prescription opiates during their residency years-the stage in physicians' training when they first receive prescribing privileges. Current users of benzodiazepines and opiates used these drugs primarily for self-treatment rather than recreation. These two substances are often associated with impairment at later stages in the physician's career.