Recommended guidelines for submission, trimming, margin evaluation, and reporting of tumor biopsy specimens in veterinary surgical pathology.

Neoplastic diseases are typically diagnosed by biopsy and histopathological evaluation. The pathology report is key in determining prognosis, therapeutic decisions, and overall case management and therefore requires diagnostic accuracy, completeness, and clarity. Successful management relies on collaboration between clinical veterinarians, oncologists, and pathologists. To date there has been no standardized approach or guideline for the submission, trimming, margin evaluation, or reporting of neoplastic biopsy specimens in veterinary medicine. To address this issue, a committee consisting of veterinary pathologists and oncologists was established under the auspices of the American College of Veterinary Pathologists Oncology Committee. These consensus guidelines were subsequently reviewed and endorsed by a large international group of veterinary pathologists. These recommended guidelines are not mandated but rather exist to help clinicians and veterinary pathologists optimally handle neoplastic biopsy samples. Many of these guidelines represent the collective experience of the committee members and consensus group when assessing neoplastic lesions from veterinary patients but have not met the rigors of definitive scientific study and investigation. These questions of technique, analysis, and evaluation should be put through formal scrutiny in rigorous clinical studies in the near future so that more definitive guidelines can be derived.

Proposal of a 2-tier histologic grading system for canine cutaneous mast cell tumors to more accurately predict biological behavior.

Currently, prognostic and therapeutic determinations for canine cutaneous mast cell tumors (MCTs) are primarily based on histologic grade. However, the use of different grading systems by veterinary pathologists and institutional modifications make the prognostic value of histologic grading highly questionable. To evaluate the consistency of microscopic grading among veterinary pathologists and the prognostic significance of the Patnaik grading system, 95 cutaneous MCTs from 95 dogs were graded in a blinded study by 28 veterinary pathologists from 16 institutions. Concordance among veterinary pathologists was 75% for the diagnosis of grade 3 MCTs and less than 64% for the diagnosis of grade 1 and 2 MCTs. To improve concordance among pathologists and to provide better prognostic significance, a 2-tier histologic grading system was devised. The diagnosis of high-grade MCTs is based on the presence of any one of the following criteria: at least 7 mitotic figures in 10 high-power fields (hpf); at least 3 multinucleated (3 or more nuclei) cells in 10 hpf; at least 3 bizarre nuclei in 10 hpf; karyomegaly (ie, nuclear diameters of at least 10% of neoplastic cells vary by at least two-fold). Fields with the highest mitotic activity or with the highest degree of anisokaryosis were selected to assess the different parameters. According to the novel grading system, high-grade MCTs were significantly associated with shorter time to metastasis or new tumor development, and with shorter survival time. The median survival time was less than 4 months for high-grade MCTs but more than 2 years for low-grade MCTs.

Correlation of serum cardiac troponin I and myocardial damage in cattle with monensin toxicosis.

BACKGROUND: Cardiac troponin I (cTnI) is used as a biomarker of myocardial injury in people and small animals. Little is known about the diagnostic use of cTnI in cattle. HYPOTHESIS: Serum cTnI correlates to myocardial function and histopathologic lesions in cattle with monensin-induced myocardial injury. ANIMALS: Ten healthy cows. METHODS: Experimental study. Animals received 1 dose of monensin PO; 30 mg/kg (n = 1) or 40 mg/kg (n = 1) (Group A) or 50 mg/kg monensin (n = 8) (Group B) of body weight. Repeated measurements were performed of serum cTnI, biochemistry, and ECG and echocardiography until study termination at 80 (Group A) and 144 hours (Group B) after dosing. Semiquantitative histopathologic examinations of the heart were performed in each cow. A scoring system with regard to the magnitude of myocardial injury was established and a total heart score was compared with maximum cTnI concentration measured after monensin administration. Five hearts from healthy cows served as controls. RESULTS: Increased cTnI (>0.07 ng/mL) was found in 9/10 cows. cTnI was significantly associated with left ventricular shortening fraction (r(2)= 0.51; P= .02) and myocardial histopathologic lesion score (r(2)= 0.49; P= .021). All cows (n = 7) with evidence of myocardial necrosis had a cTnI concentration > or = 1.04 ng/mL. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: cTnI is related to myocardial necrosis and severity of myocardial damage in cattle with monensin toxicosis. cTnI could become a useful diagnostic tool in the noninvasive assessment of myocardial injury in cattle with naturally occurring cardiac disease.

Immunologic, biochemical, and ultrastructural characterization of the leukemia cell in F344 rats.

Immunologic, biochemical, and morphologic characteristics of the mononuclear cell from the leukemia of F344 rats were determined. The cells were morphologically similar to large granular lymphocytes (LGL). Surface marker analysis revealed Fc gamma receptors, no Fc gamma receptor or complement receptor activity, and an inability to spontaneously rosette guinea pig erythrocytes. Leukemia cells also had a surface immunoglobulin that hemagglutinated normal rat erythrocytes. The surface immunoglobulin and Fc gamma receptors dissociated from the cell after 2 hours of in vitro incubation, but Fc gamma receptor activity was reexpressed after 6 hours of in vitro incubation. Cells were capable of adherence to glass surfaces but had a low capacity for phagocytosis of latex beads. Cytochemical analysis revealed a consistent, strongly positive reaction for esterase that was sensitive to NaF. The cytochemical profile of the leukemia cell was similar to that described for LGL.

Subunit vaccine protects Macaca nemestrina (pig-tailed macaque) against simian T-cell lymphotropic virus type I challenge.

Five macaques received two vaccinations consisting of soluble human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I proteins from a cell/serum-free human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I-producing cell line. Five other macaques were vaccine controls. All were challenged with a simian T-cell lymphotropic virus type I-producing cell line. The vaccinated macaques generated a strong serological response to challenge as opposed to the control macaques. Western blot analysis of the sera showed that both groups recognized gag and env proteins, but the vaccinate's sera reacted better to the env proteins. Additionally, the antibody produced by both groups had antibody-dependent, complement-mediated cytotoxic activity toward both human and simian T-cell lymphotropic virus type I-infected target cells. The responses of lymphocytes and neutrophils, as measured by lymphocyte blast transformation and chemiluminescence response, respectively, showed no apparent difference between the vaccinates and controls. Testing for reverse transcriptase in lymphocyte supernatants revealed that the controls contained reverse transcriptase activity, while the vaccinates remained negative. The data presented here demonstrate that the vaccine was successful in protecting Macaca nemestrina from simian T-cell lymphotropic virus type I infection.

Stimulation of normal rat bone marrow fibroblast proliferation by sera from leukemic Fischer rats.

Fibroblast hyperplasia and accumulation of fibrous material in the bone marrow of patients with idiopathic (primary) or secondary myelofibrosis (MF) is believed to result from a reaction by marrow fibroblasts to an altered marrow microenvironment, the alteration being potentiated by abnormal hemic cells. We investigated the hypothesis that humoral factors might contribute to fibroblast overgrowth in MF by using an animal model, aged Fischer rats, where MF frequently occurs with leukemia. Sera from leukemic rats and leukemic cell conditioned media (CM) were assayed for enhancement of normal rat marrow fibroblast proliferation in a culture system where fibroblasts form discrete, adherent colonies. Our results demonstrated that: leukemic sera induced a 170% increase in total fibroblast colony numbers and a 325% increase in colonies containing more than 80 cells, stimulation of fibroblast growth was leukemia related since sera from rats with transplanted leukemia enhanced marrow fibroblast proliferation, leukemic cell CM did not contain a growth factor for marrow fibroblasts, sera from leukemic rats and 2-mercaptoethanol were additive in enhancing marrow fibroblast proliferation and probably act by different mechanisms, and leukemic rat sera was less effective as a colony-stimulating factor than normal rat sera, a condition mimicked when leukemic and normal spleen CM were compared. This is the first time that a serum component has been implicated in the pathogenesis of MF; our work may contribute to understanding the mechanism involved when MF occurs as a complication of leukemia.

Loss of neutrophil and natural killer cell function following feline immunodeficiency virus infection.

Experimental infection with the Mt. Airy isolate of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIVMA), a lentivirus isolated from a domestic cat exhibiting signs of an immunodeficiency-like syndrome, results in transient lymphadenopathy, fever, stomatitis, enteritis, neurologic abnormalities, and immunosuppression. The effects of FIVMA infection on neutrophil and natural killer cell (NK) function were examined in vitro. Suppression of neutrophil chemiluminescence (CL) responses, as well as reduction in NK-mediated cytotoxicity were demonstrated. Neutrophil CL was decreased by 50% in infected cats when compared to control values. This loss of CL was present through 6 months after infection. In addition, NK-mediated cytotoxicity was approximately 50% less in FIVMA infected cats than in controls. Loss of innate immunity was paralleled with inversion in feline CD4/CD8 lymphocyte ratios and decreases in lymphocyte mitogenesis seen as early as 5 weeks after infection. These results suggest that FIVMA infection induces an immunodeficiency disorder in infected cats similar to that seen in human immunodeficiency virus infections.

Expression of an oncofetal protein (OFP) in rat and human leukemia cells.

A unique oncofetal protein (OFP) previously identified in rat fetal tissue and rat and human solid tumors, is now shown to be present in rat and human leukemia cells by use of a monoclonal antibody-based assay. Using a highly specific anti-rat OFP monoclonal antibody OFP has been unquivocally immunolocalized to the cytoplasm of the rat leukemia cells. The factor is rapidly released to the circulation as 50 and 55 kD species which share the immunological determinants. When leukemia cells are transplanted to normal rats, OFP increases in the circulation in a biphasic manner which may be due to immune clearance since circulating anti-OFP antibodies have been demonstrated. Induction of differentiation in the human HL-60 leukemia cell line by 13-cis-retinoic acid caused a down regulation of OFP synthesis, both intra- and extra-cellular levels dropping to essentially zero. Induction of differentiation with dibutyryl cyclic AMP caused a cessation of secretion of OFP, with a marked increase in its intracellular concentration, a condition resembling the retention in fetal cells. Leukemia cells add to a growing list of tumors previously shown to produce OFP, suggesting that OFP is intimately involved in some facet of tumorigenesis.

Mechanism of growth inhibition of mammary carcinomas by glucarate and the glucarate: retinoid combination.

In synergistic combination 0.75 mmol/kg diet of N-(4-hydroxyphenyl) retinamide and 32 mmol/kg diet of glucarate inhibits the growth of primary rat mammary tumors, but are equally effective as single agents at 1.5 and 128 mmol/kg diet, respectively. Dose-response studies suggest that like retinoids, glucarate acts directly on tumor cells, rather than having an adjuvant effect. Although synergism is maintained down to at least 0.38 mmol/kg diet of the retinoid, experiments using Vitamin A-deficient diets indicates 128 mmol/kg glucarate acts independent of retinoid. Both alone and in combination, glucarate and retinoid inhibited the growth of human mammary tumor cells grown in the athymic mouse, the growth of rat mammary tumors in germfree rats and the hormone-independent MTW 9a/R rat mammary tumor. Like retinoids, glucarate suppresses protein kinase C and induces transforming growth factor-beta, in the mammary tumor cells.

Cutaneous neosporosis in two adult dogs on chronic immunosuppressive therapy.

Antemortem diagnosis of generalized ulcerative and pyogranulomatous dermatitis with numerous intralesional tachyzoites was made from skin biopsy specimens from 2 adult dogs on chronic immunosuppressive therapy. A 9-year-old Italian Greyhound was on long-term corticosteroid therapy for the treatment of a lupus-like systemic autoimmune disorder, and a 7-year-old Labrador Retriever had received several months of chemotherapy for lymphosarcoma. The tachyzoites were identified as Neospora caninum by immunoperoxidase immunohistochemistry. Both dogs were treated with clindamycin. Lesions in the Greyhound resolved; however, the Labrador Retriever was euthanized because of evidence of neuromuscular disease, despite improvement of the skin lesions. These 2 cases indicate that cutaneous neosporosis can occur in adult dogs on chronic immunosuppressive therapy. The disease may result from reactivation of a congenital infection and/or a recently acquired primary infection.

The life cycle of Paragonimus kellicotti in cats.

Migration and development of Paragonimus kellicotti were studied in cats killed between 1 and 265 days after feeding 15--20 metacercariae from the hearts of naturally infected crayfish. Metacercariae excysted in the intestine and appeared in the peritoneal cavity within 24 hr. Some young flukes penetrated the diaphragm and migrated to the pleural cavity during the first week, but the majority penetrated the pleura between 10 and 14 days. No flukes were found in the pleural cavity after 23 days postinfection. By 4 weeks postinfection, the flukes were well established within lung parenchyma, mainly in the right caudal lobe, where most of their growth occurred. Eggs first were seen in flukes on the 34th day postinfection and in feces 2 days later. Estimated daily ova production ranged from 1,000 to 2,000 eggs/fluke/day.

Population biology of Camallanus oxycephalus Ward and Magath, 1916 (Nematoda: Camallanidae) in white bass in western Lake Erie.

The distribution and abundance of the nematode Camallanus oxycephalus infecting white bass, Morone chrysops, in western Lake Erie was studied for over 2 years. Infection was generally more frequent and of higher intensity in large fish. The frequency distributions of nematode abundance in all segments of the fish population followed the negative binomial distribution. The data show seasonal cycles in population structure, site selection, intensity of infection, maturation, and reproduction. Infection occurs during July and August with a resulting peak in population density; during late summer and autumn, mortality, probably density-dependent, reduces the population by 30 to 60%; surviving worms are eliminated at 1 year of age. Growth and development of female worms is arrested from November to April, then proceeds at a rapid rate until the worms release their larvae and die. This growth pattern is probably related to temperature but may also involve host hormone cycles. The dispersal period of the nematode coincides with the annual maximum density of the intermediate host, a cyclopoid copepod,and is interpreted as an adaptation which increases the probability of successful transmission. Because the number of larvae produced by each female worm is a function of body volume, natural selection has favored rapid spring growth and attainment of large body size relative to the male worm. Both seasonal timing in the life cycle and the number of larvae produced are important factors in determining the abundance of this and perhaps other parasites. Evidence is presented suggesting that fluctuations of environmental parameters may disrupt the timing of transmission and alter the distribution and abundance of the parasite. It is hypothesized that the magnitude of such changes in parasite abundance may be related to the complexity of the host-parasite system.

Sarcocystis fayeri sp. n. from the horse.

Hearts, diaphragms, esophagi, and spinal cords from 266 horses were obtained at slaughter in Creston, Ohio. Tissues were examined microscopically for Sarcocystis in sections, digested in trypsin to obtain bradyzoites, and fed to 10 dogs and 10 cats. Intramuscular cysts were found in selections of two hearts from 57 horses and four esophagi from 107 horses. The cysts were up to 900 micron long and up to 70 micron wide. The cyst wall was 1 to 2 micron thick and cross-striated. The enclosed bradyzoites were banana-shaped, 15 to 20 by 20 to 3 micron, and contained several PAS-positive granules. Bradyzoites were found in trypsin digests of seven of 57 (13%) equine tissues (heart, diaphragm, esophagus but not spinal cord) in one experiment and 10 of 47 (21%) esophagi, eight of 47 (17%) diaphragms but none of 47 hearts and spinal cords in another experiment. All of 10 dogs shed sporulated sporocysts or oocysts in feces 12 to 15 days (12 in one, 13 in eight, and 15 days in one) after digesting tissues from 169 horses. The sporocysts were 11 to 13 (12.0 +/- 0.5) by 7 to 8.5 (7.9 +/- 0.5) micron. In histologic sections of canine small intestine the sporocysts were located in the lamina propria near the tips of the villi. The 10 cats fed tissues from 266 horses did not shed Sarcocystis. A new name, S. fayeri, is proposed for this organism. Sarcocystis fayeri sporocysts (12 by 8 micron) are shorter than those of S. betrami (15 by 10 micron), the other species of Sarcocystis from the horse. The prepatent period is 12 to 15 days for S. fayeri and 8 days for S. bertrami (synonym S. equicanis Rommel and Geisel 1975).

Histology and morphometry of Strongylus vulgaris-mediated equine mesenteric arteritis.

Histological and morphometric evaluation of equine cranial mesenteric arteries was performed on 239 and 89 arteries, respectively. Histological examination revealed that thrombosis and the severity of inflammation varied on a seasonal basis and were directly associated with larval presence. Intimal and adventitial fibrosis were generally of greater severity than medial fibrosis. Fibrosis of the vasa vasorum was less frequent than fibrosis of the artery itself. Morphometry revealed a significant increase in intimal, adventitial and, to a lesser extent, medial area in affected as compared with normal arteries. This change was due to the accumulation of collagen and was considered to result in decreased arterial elasticity. The luminal area varied widely among affected arteries.

Seasonal occurrence and distribution of Gasterophilus intestinalis and Gasterophilus nasalis in the stomachs of equids in Texas.

Stomachs of 271 horses and ponies from 2 sources were evaluated for the presence of Gasterophilus intestinalis and G nasalis larvae, through 2 overlapping 12-month periods of bot fly activity in southern Texas. Equids (n = 140) from one source had nearly 96% of their stomachs infected, whereas equids (n = 131) from another source had 44% of their stomachs infected by Gasterophilus spp. Seasonal dynamics of the bot infection indicated the highest average number of bot larvae per infected stomach occurred in the winter and spring. The smallest average number of bots per infected stomach occurred in the fall. Higher percentages of early (2nd instar plus young 3rd instar) larvae of G intestinalis were observed in the fall in equids from both sources. The late (more fully developed older 3rd instar) G intestinalis larvae outnumbered the early larvae in the winter, spring, and summer. Seasonal variation in numbers and development status of the larvae was consistent with the largest period of adult bot fly activity occurring during the fall. The 2 species of bots had different predilection sites of attachment. Gasterophilus intestinalis larvae concentrated in the nonglandular portions of the stomach near the margo plicatus on the cranial (parietal) surface of the stomach and in the most dorsal extent of the saccus cecus. Gasterophilus nasalis larvae attached almost exclusively in the first ampulla of the duodenum. Predilection sites for both Gasterophilus spp occurred in dorsally positioned areas in the alimentary tract favoring increased availability of oxygen.

Dermatopathology and immunity in experimental Psoroptes ovis (Acari:Psoroptidae) infestation of naive and previously exposed Hereford cattle.

Naive and previously exposed young Hereford cattle were infested with Psoroptes ovis and maintained in stanchions for 7 weeks. Skin biopsy samples were examined at 1, 2, 5, and 7 weeks after infestation was induced, compared with those from noninfested control calves, and correlated with changes in the mite populations and development of dermatitis. Gross and microscopic appearance of lesions were qualitatively similar in both groups of infested calves. The lesions occurred early in the previously exposed calves, but progressed slowly, whereas lesions in the naive calves appeared later, but were rapidly progressive. The basic histopathologic pattern was chronic exudative superficial perivascular dermatitis compatible with allergy. The mite populations on the naive calves revealed exponential growth and high fecundity, and reached high population densities, whereas mite populations on previously exposed calves had low growth rates and low fecundity and reached population densities 100 to 1,000 times less than those on naive calves. Seemingly, there was a hypersensitivity to mite antigens. The hypersensitivity response may have been a mechanism by which humoral immunity was delivered to the mite microenvironment and may have contributed to acquired resistance by controlling mite populations. The mechanism of population control seems to be related partially to decreased fecundity of female P ovis.

Pathogenesis of psoroptic scabies in Hereford heifer calves.

Hereford heifer calves were experimentally infested with Psoroptes ovis. Histologic examination of skin specimens was conducted at weekly intervals before and after treatment with ivermectin on postinfestation week 7. Electron microscopy revealed numerous degranulating mast cells in the skin of infested but not in control calves. many active, as well as degenerate, neutrophils were in the scab on infested calves. Microscopic epidermal ulcers developed on infested calves when live mites were present but not after treatment. Numbers of dermal neutrophils and plasma cells decreased and numbers of circulating neutrophils increased 1 week after treatment. Numbers of dermal eosinophils and mast cells in calves with eosinophilia increased for several weeks after treatment. Statistical analysis indicated significant correlations (P less than 0.05) among numbers of dermal inflammatory cells, hemogram values, and changes in dermal thickness. Seemingly, mite-induced epidermal damage was the key pathogenic event in psoroptic scabies in calves. Mast cell degranulation contributed to the pathogenesis of the dermatitis, and neutropenia was caused by sustained, poorly compensated efflux of neutrophils into the scab through mite-induced breaks in the epidermis.

Albendazole therapy for experimentally induced Paragonimus kellicotti infection in cats.

The effect of albendazole therapy was studied in 6 cats with pulmonary paragonimiasis induced by experimental inoculation of metacercariae (25/cat) of Paragonimus kellicotti. At 76 to 101 days after they were inoculated, 5 cats were administered an oral aqueous suspension of albendazole in 2 divided doses totaling 20 mg (2 cats), 50 mg (1 cat), or 100 mg (2 cats)/kg of body weight each day for 14 to 21 days. The 6th cat (control) was not administered albendazole. Nine days after cats were given the 50- and 100-mg/kg dosages, Paragonimus ova were not seen in the feces of 3 cats. There was marked reduction in ova production in the feces of the 2 cats administered 20 mg/kg of albendazole. Live flukes were not recovered from the lungs of 3 cats necropsied 4 or 5 weeks after dosing with 50 or 100 mg/kg, but the lungs of the 2 cats administered 20 mg of albendazole/kg yielded 9 and 7 apparently viable flukes. Seventeen live flukes were recovered from the control cat not treated with albendazole. In 4 noninoculated normal cats administered 20 mg (1 cat), 100 mg (1 cat), and 200 mg (2 cats) of albendazole/kg of body weight each day for 14 days, there were no gross or microscopic lesions attributable to the drug.

Histopathologic evidence of reperfusion injury in the large colon of horses after low-flow ischemia.

Effects of low-flow ischemia and reperfusion of the large colon on mucosal architecture were determined in horses. Twenty-four adult horses were randomly allocated to 3 groups: sham-operated (n = 6), 6 hours of ischemia (n = 9), and 3 hours of ischemia and 3 hours of reperfusion (n = 9). Low-flow ischemia was induced in horses of groups 2 and 3 by reducing colonic arterial blood flow to 20% of baseline values. Systemic hemodynamic and metabolic variables were maintained constant and in a normal physiologic range. Full-thickness biopsy specimens were obtained from the left ventral colon for histomorphologic and morphometric examination at baseline and at 30-minute intervals for 6 hours; additional biopsy specimens were collected at 185, 190, and 195 minutes (corresponding to 5-, 10-, and 15-minute periods of reperfusion in group-3 horses). There were no differences among groups at baseline or across time in group-1 horses for any of the histopathologic variables. There were significant (P < 0.05) increases in percentage of surface mucosal disruption, estimated and measured percentage depth of mucosal loss, mucosal hemorrhage, mucosal edema, and cellular debris index during 0 hour to 3 hours, compared with baseline, and from 3 hours to 6 hours, compared with 3 hours in horses of groups 2 and 3. Estimated percentage depth of mucosal loss and cellular debris index were significantly (P < 0.05) greater in group-3 horses, compared with group-2 horses during the interval from 3 to 6 hours. There were trends toward greater percentage of surface mucosal disruption and mucosal edema during the early phase of reperfusion (3 to 4 hours) and greater mucosal hemorrhage, measured percentage depth of mucosal loss, and mucosal interstitial-to-crypt ratio during the late phase (4 to 6 hours) of reperfusion in group-3 horses vs group-2 horses. Reestablishment of colonic arterial blood flow after low-flow ischemia caused greater mucosal injury than did a comparable period of continued ischemia. Thus, reperfusion injury was detected in the large colon of horses after low-flow arterial ischemia. The serial mucosal alterations that developed in the colon were comparable in horses of groups 2 and 3; however, reperfusion exacerbated colonic mucosal injury.