Interferon gamma constrains type 2 lymphocyte niche boundaries during mixed inflammation.

Allergic immunity is orchestrated by group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) and type 2 helper T (Th2) cells prominently arrayed at epithelial- and microbial-rich barriers. However, ILC2s and Th2 cells are also present in fibroblast-rich niches within the adventitial layer of larger vessels and similar boundary structures in sterile deep tissues, and it remains unclear whether they undergo dynamic repositioning during immune perturbations. Here, we used thick-section quantitative imaging to show that allergic inflammation drives invasion of lung and liver non-adventitial parenchyma by ILC2s and Th2 cells. However, during concurrent type 1 and type 2 mixed inflammation, IFNγ from broadly distributed type 1 lymphocytes directly blocked both ILC2 parenchymal trafficking and subsequent cell survival. ILC2 and Th2 cell confinement to adventitia limited mortality by the type 1 pathogen Listeria monocytogenes. Our results suggest that the topography of tissue lymphocyte subsets is tightly regulated to promote appropriately timed and balanced immunity.

IL-33 Induces Cellular and Exosomal miR-146a Expression as a Feedback Inhibitor of Mast Cell Function.

IL-33 is an inflammatory cytokine that promotes allergic disease by activating group 2 innate lymphoid cells, Th2 cells, and mast cells. IL-33 is increased in asthmatics, and its blockade suppresses asthma-like inflammation in mouse models. Homeostatic control of IL-33 signaling is poorly understood. Because the IL-33 receptor, ST2, acts via cascades used by the TLR family, similar feedback mechanisms may exist. MicroRNA (miR)-146a is induced by LPS-mediated TLR4 signaling and serves as a feedback inhibitor. Therefore, we explored whether miR-146a has a role in IL-33 signaling. IL-33 induced cellular and exosomal miR-146a expression in mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMCs). BMMCs transfected with a miR-146a antagonist or derived from miR-146a knockout mice showed enhanced cytokine expression in response to IL-33, suggesting that miR-146a is a negative regulator of IL-33-ST2 signaling. In vivo, miR-146a expression in plasma exosomes was elevated after i.p. injection of IL-33 in wild-type but not mast cell-deficient KitW-sh/W-sh mice. Finally, KitW-sh/W-sh mice acutely reconstituted with miR-146a knockout BMMCs prior to IL-33 challenge had elevated plasma IL-6 levels compared with littermates receiving wild-type BMMCs. These results support the hypothesis that miR-146a is a feedback regulator of IL-33-mediated mast cell functions associated with allergic disease.

Fluvastatin enhances IL-33-mediated mast cell IL-6 and TNF production.

Statins are HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors prescribed for lowering cholesterol. They can also inhibit inflammatory responses by suppressing isoprenylation of small G proteins. Consistent with this, we previously found that fluvastatin suppresses IgE-mediated mast cell function. However, some studies have found that statins induced pro-inflammatory cytokines in macrophages and NK cells. In contrast to IgE signaling, we show that fluvastatin augments IL-33-induced TNF and IL-6 production by mast cells. This effect required the key mast cell growth factor, stem cell factor (SCF). Treatment of IL-33-activated mast cells with mevalonic acid or isoprenoids reduced fluvastatin effects, suggesting fluvastatin acts at least partly by reducing isoprenoid production. Fluvastatin also enhanced IL-33-induced NF-κB transcriptional activity and promoted neutrophilic peritonitis in vivo, a response requiring mast cell activation. Other statins tested did not enhance IL-33 responsiveness. Therefore, this work supports observations of unexpected pro-inflammatory effects of some statins and suggests mechanisms by which this may occur. Because statins are candidates for repurposing in inflammatory disorders, our work emphasizes the importance of understanding the pleiotropic and possible unexpected effects of these drugs.

Lactic Acid Inhibits Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Mast Cell Function by Limiting Glycolysis and ATP Availability.

Sepsis has a well-studied inflammatory phase, with a less-understood secondary immunosuppressive phase. Elevated blood lactate and slow lactate clearance are associated with mortality; however, regulatory roles are unknown. We hypothesized that lactic acid (LA) contributes to the late phase and is not solely a consequence of bacterial infection. No studies have examined LA effects in sepsis models in vivo or a mechanism by which it suppresses LPS-induced activation in vitro. Because mast cells can be activated systemically and contribute to sepsis, we examined LA effects on the mast cell response to LPS. LA significantly suppressed LPS-induced cytokine production and NF-κB transcriptional activity in mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells and cytokine production in peritoneal mast cells. Suppression was MCT-1 dependent and reproducible with sodium lactate or formic acid. Further, LA significantly suppressed cytokine induction following LPS-induced endotoxemia in mice. Because glycolysis is linked to inflammation and LA is a byproduct of this process, we examined changes in glucose metabolism. LA treatment reduced glucose uptake and lactate export during LPS stimulation. LA effects were mimicked by glycolytic inhibitors and reversed by increasing ATP availability. These results indicate that glycolytic suppression and ATP production are necessary and sufficient for LA effects. Our work suggests that enhancing glycolysis and ATP production could improve immune function, counteracting LA suppressive effects in the immunosuppressive phase of sepsis.

Fluvastatin Induces Apoptosis in Primary and Transformed Mast Cells.

Statin drugs are widely employed in the clinic to reduce serum cholesterol. Because of their hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase antagonism, statins also reduce isoprenyl lipids necessary for the membrane anchorage and signaling of small G-proteins in the Ras superfamily. We previously found that statins suppress immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated mast cell activation, suggesting these drugs might be useful in treating allergic disease. Although IgE-induced function is critical to allergic inflammation, mast cell proliferation and survival also impact atopic disease and mast cell neoplasia. In this study, we describe fluvastatin-mediated apoptosis in primary and transformed mast cells. An IC50 was achieved between 0.8 and 3.5 µM in both cell types, concentrations similar to the reported fluvastatin serum Cmax value. Apoptosis was correlated with reduced stem cell factor (SCF)-mediated signal transduction, mitochondrial dysfunction, and caspase activation. Complementing these data, we found that p53 deficiency or Bcl-2 overexpression reduced fluvastatin-induced apoptosis. We also noted evidence of cytoprotective autophagy in primary mast cells treated with fluvastatin. Finally, we found that intraperitoneal fluvastatin treatment reduced peritoneal mast cell numbers in vivo These findings offer insight into the mechanisms of mast cell survival and support the possible utility of statins in mast cell-associated allergic and neoplastic diseases. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Fluvastatin, a statin drug used to lower cholesterol, induces apoptosis in primary and transformed mast cells by antagonizing protein isoprenylation, effectively inhibiting stem cell factor (SCF)-induced survival signals. This drug may be an effective means of suppressing mast cell survival.

TGF-ß1 Suppresses IL-33-Induced Mast Cell Function.

TGF-ß1 is involved in many pathological conditions, including autoimmune disorders, cancer, and cardiovascular and allergic diseases. We have previously found that TGF-ß1 can suppress IgE-mediated mast cell activation of human and mouse mast cells. IL-33 is a member of the IL-1 family capable of inducing mast cell responses and enhancing IgE-mediated activation. In this study, we investigated the effects of TGF-ß on IL-33-mediated mast cell activation. Bone marrow-derived mast cells cultured in TGF-ß1, ß2, or ß3 showed reduced IL-33-mediated production of TNF, IL-6, IL-13, and MCP-1 in a concentration-dependent manner. TGF-ß1 inhibited IL-33-mediated Akt and ERK phosphorylation as well as NF-κB- and AP-1-mediated transcription. These effects were functionally important, as TGF-ß1 injection suppressed IL-33-induced systemic cytokines in vivo and inhibited IL-33-mediated cytokine release from human mast cells. TGF-ß1 also suppressed the combined effects of IL-33 and IgE-mediated activation on mouse and human mast cells. The role of IL-33 in the pathogenesis of allergic diseases is incompletely understood. These findings, consistent with our previously reported effects of TGF-ß1 on IgE-mediated activation, demonstrate that TGF-ß1 can provide broad inhibitory signals to activated mast cells.

Lactic Acid Suppresses IL-33-Mediated Mast Cell Inflammatory Responses via Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1α-Dependent miR-155 Suppression.

Lactic acid (LA) is present in tumors, asthma, and wound healing, environments with elevated IL-33 and mast cell infiltration. Although IL-33 is a potent mast cell activator, how LA affects IL-33-mediated mast cell function is unknown. To investigate this, mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells were cultured with or without LA and activated with IL-33. LA reduced IL-33-mediated cytokine and chemokine production. Using inhibitors for monocarboxylate transporters (MCT) or replacing LA with sodium lactate revealed that LA effects are MCT-1- and pH-dependent. LA selectively altered IL-33 signaling, suppressing TGF-ß-activated kinase-1, JNK, ERK, and NF-κB phosphorylation, but not p38 phosphorylation. LA effects in other contexts have been linked to hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α, which was enhanced in bone marrow-derived mast cells treated with LA. Because HIF-1α has been shown to regulate the microRNA miR-155 in other systems, LA effects on miR-155-5p and miR-155-3p species were measured. In fact, LA selectively suppressed miR-155-5p in an HIF-1α-dependent manner. Moreover, overexpressing miR-155-5p, but not miR-155-3p, abolished LA effects on IL-33-induced cytokine production. These in vitro effects of reducing cytokines were consistent in vivo, because LA injected i.p. into C57BL/6 mice suppressed IL-33-induced plasma cytokine levels. Lastly, IL-33 effects on primary human mast cells were suppressed by LA in an MCT-dependent manner. Our data demonstrate that LA, present in inflammatory and malignant microenvironments, can alter mast cell behavior to suppress inflammation.

IL-10-Induced miR-155 Targets SOCS1 To Enhance IgE-Mediated Mast Cell Function.

IL-10 is an important regulatory cytokine that modulates a wide range of immune cells. Whereas it is best known for its ability to suppress immune responses, IL-10 has been found to be pathogenic in several human and animal studies of immune-mediated diseases. There is a considerable gap in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind the stimulatory effects of IL-10 during allergic inflammation. IL-10 treatment has been shown to suppress mast cell TNF production. In this study, we report that whereas TNF secretion was reduced, IL-10 surprisingly enhanced IgE-mediated protease and cytokine production both in vitro and in vivo. This stimulatory effect was consistent in mouse and human skin mast cells. IL-10 enhanced activation of the key FcεRI signaling proteins Stat5, JNK, and ERK. We demonstrate that IL-10 effects are dependent on Stat3 activation, eliciting miR-155 expression, with a resulting loss of suppressor of cytokine signaling-1. The importance of miR-155 was demonstrated by the inability of IL-10 to enhance anaphylaxis in miR-155-deficient mice. Taken together, our results reveal an IL-10-induced, Stat3-miR-155 signaling pathway that can promote mast cell responses.

Didox (3,4-dihydroxybenzohydroxamic acid) suppresses IL-33-induced cytokine production in primary mouse mast cells.

While IgE is considered the primary mediator of mast cell activation, IL-33 contributes substantially in asthma, allergic rhinitis, and atopic dermatitis. To develop effective treatments for allergic disease, it is important to understand the role of therapeutic agents on IL-33 activation. We examined the effect of Didox (3,4-dihydroxybenzohydroxamic acid), an antioxidant and ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) inhibitor, on IL-33-mediated mast cell activation. Didox suppressed IL-6, IL-13, TNF, and MIP-1α (CCL3) production in bone marrow derived mast cells following IL-33 activation. This suppression was observed in different genetic backgrounds and extended to peritoneal mast cells. The antioxidant N-acetylcysteine mimicked the suppression of Didox, albeit at a much higher dose, while the RNR inhibitor hydroxyurea had no effect. Didox substantially suppressed IL-33-mediated NFκB and AP-1 transcriptional activities. These results suggest that Didox attenuates IL-33-induced mast cell activation and should be further studied as a potential therapeutic agent for inflammatory diseases involving IL-33.

Fluoxetine restrains allergic inflammation by targeting an FcɛRI-ATP positive feedback loop in mast cells.

There is a clinical need for new treatment options addressing allergic disease. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of antidepressants that have anti-inflammatory properties. We tested the effects of the SSRI fluoxetine on IgE-induced function of mast cells, which are critical effectors of allergic inflammation. We showed that fluoxetine treatment of murine or human mast cells reduced IgE-mediated degranulation, cytokine production, and inflammatory lipid secretion, as well as signaling mediated by the mast cell activator ATP. In a mouse model of systemic anaphylaxis, fluoxetine reduced hypothermia and cytokine production. Fluoxetine was also effective in a model of allergic airway inflammation, where it reduced bronchial responsiveness and inflammation. These data show that fluoxetine suppresses mast cell activation by impeding an FcɛRI-ATP positive feedback loop and support the potential repurposing of this SSRI for use in allergic disease.

Group 2 innate lymphoid cells constrain type 3/17 lymphocytes in shared stromal niches to restrict liver fibrosis.

Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) cooperate with adaptive Th2 cells as key organizers of tissue type 2 immune responses, while a spectrum of innate and adaptive lymphocytes coordinate early type 3/17 immunity. Both type 2 and type 3/17 lymphocyte associated cytokines are linked to tissue fibrosis, but how their dynamic and spatial topographies may direct beneficial or pathologic organ remodelling is unclear. Here we used volumetric imaging in models of liver fibrosis, finding accumulation of periportal and fibrotic tract IL-5 + lymphocytes, predominantly ILC2s, in close proximity to expanded type 3/17 lymphocytes and IL-33 high niche fibroblasts. Ablation of IL-5 + lymphocytes worsened carbon tetrachloride-and bile duct ligation-induced liver fibrosis with increased niche IL-17A + type 3/17 lymphocytes, predominantly γδ T cells. In contrast, concurrent ablation of IL-5 + and IL-17A + lymphocytes reduced this progressive liver fibrosis, suggesting a cross-regulation of type 2 and type 3 lymphocytes at specialized fibroblast niches that tunes hepatic fibrosis.

Inhibiting Glycolysis and ATP Production Attenuates IL-33-Mediated Mast Cell Function and Peritonitis.

Cellular metabolism and energy sensing pathways are closely linked to inflammation, but there is little understanding of how these pathways affect mast cell function. Mast cells are major effectors of allergy and asthma, and can be activated by the alarmin IL-33, which is linked to allergic disease. Therefore, we investigated the metabolic requirements for IL-33-induced mast cell function, to identify targets for controlling inflammation. We found that IL-33 increases glycolysis, glycolytic protein expression, and oxidative phosphorylation (OX PHOS). Inhibiting OX PHOS had little effect on cytokine production, but antagonizing glycolysis with 2-deoxyglucose or oxamate suppressed inflammatory cytokine production in vitro and in vivo. ATP reversed this suppression. Glycolytic blockade suppressed IL-33 signaling, including ERK phosphorylation, NFκB transcription, and ROS production in vitro, and suppressed IL-33-induced neutrophil recruitment in vivo. To test a clinically relevant way to modulate these pathways, we examined the effects of the FDA-approved drug metformin on IL-33 activation. Metformin activates AMPK, which suppresses glycolysis in immune cells. We found that metformin suppressed cytokine production in vitro and in vivo, effects that were reversed by ATP, mimicking the actions of the glycolytic inhibitors we tested. These data suggest that glycolytic ATP production is important for IL-33-induced mast cell activation, and that targeting this pathway may be useful in allergic disease.

Controlling Mast Cell Activation and Homeostasis: Work Influenced by Bill Paul That Continues Today.

Mast cells are tissue resident, innate immune cells with heterogenous phenotypes tuned by cytokines and other microenvironmental stimuli. Playing a protective role in parasitic, bacterial, and viral infections, mast cells are also known for their role in the pathogenesis of allergy, asthma, and autoimmune diseases. Here, we review factors controlling mast cell activation, with a focus on receptor signaling and potential therapies for allergic disease. Specifically, we will discuss our work with FcεRI and FγR signaling, IL-4, IL-10, and TGF-ß1 treatment, and Stat5. We conclude with potential therapeutics for allergic disease. Much of these efforts have been influenced by the work of Bill Paul. With many mechanistic targets for mast cell activation and different classes of therapeutics being studied, there is reason to be hopeful for continued clinical progress in this area.

The Use of Human and Mouse Mast Cell and Basophil Cultures to Assess Type 2 Inflammation.

Mast cells and basophils are important innate immune cells involved in resistance to parasitic infection and are critical orchestrators of allergic disease. The relative ease with which they are cultured from mouse or human tissues allows one to work with primary cells that maintain a differentiated and functional phenotype. In this chapter, we describe the methods by which mouse mast cells and basophils can be cultured from bone marrow. We also provide methods for isolating and expanding mouse peritoneal mast cells and human skin mast cells.

Dexamethasone rapidly suppresses IL-33-stimulated mast cell function by blocking transcription factor activity.

Mast cells are critical effectors of allergic disease and can be activated by IL-33, a proinflammatory member of the IL-1 cytokine family. IL-33 worsens the pathology of mast cell-mediated diseases, but therapies to antagonize IL-33 are still forthcoming. Because steroids are the mainstay of allergic disease treatment and are well known to suppress mast cell activation by other stimuli, we examined the effects of the steroid dexamethasone on IL-33-mediated mast cell function. We found that dexamethasone potently and rapidly suppressed cytokine production elicited by IL-33 from murine bone marrow-derived and peritoneal mast cells. IL-33 enhances IgE-mediated mast cell cytokine production, an activity that was also antagonized by dexamethasone. These effects were consistent in human mast cells. We additionally observed that IL-33 augmented migration of IgE-sensitized mast cells toward antigen. This enhancing effect was similarly reversed by dexamethasone. Simultaneous addition of dexamethasone with IL-33 had no effect on the phosphorylation of MAP kinases or NFκB p65 subunit; however, dexamethasone antagonized AP-1- and NFκB-mediated transcriptional activity. Intraperitoneal administration of dexamethasone completely abrogated IL-33-mediated peritoneal neutrophil recruitment and prevented plasma IL-6 elevation. These data demonstrate that steroid therapy may be an effective means of antagonizing the effects of IL-33 on mast cells in vitro and in vivo, acting partly by suppressing IL-33-induced NFκB and AP-1 activity.