Assessing the effect of indoor residual spraying (IRS) on malaria morbidity in Northern Uganda: a before and after study.

BACKGROUND: Indoor residual spraying (IRS) is known to reduce malaria transmission. In northern Uganda, a high endemic area, IRS has been implemented since 2006. Limited data however, exists on the effect of IRS on the malaria burden. This study sought to assess the effect of IRS on malaria morbidity in the high intensity area of northern Uganda. Retrospective routine data from ten health facilities in three districts which had received at least five rounds of IRS in northern Uganda was analysed. The primary outcome of interest was malaria morbidity, measured by the slide positivity rate (SPR). Descriptive statistics were used to describe the malaria morbidity stratified by age and sex. The average change in the malaria morbidity, measured by the SPR was assessed according to time, measured as calendar months. A fixed-effects linear regression model was used which included a polynomial function of time and controlled for malaria seasonality and variations between districts/facilities. RESULTS: The total out-patient department attendance in the ten health facilities for the study period was 2,779,246, of which 736,034 (26.5%) malaria cases were diagnosed with 374,826 (50.9%) cases of under 5 years and an overall SPR of 37.5%. The percentage point (p.p.) changes in SPR according to time measured as calendar months following IRS, revealed a decreasing trend in malaria morbidity in the first 3 months following each round of IRS. The highest percentage point decrease in the SPR was observed in the second month following IRS (9.5 p.p., CI -17.85 to -1.16, p = 0.026), among patients above 5 years. The SPR decline however waned by the fourth month following IRS, with an increase in the SPR of 8.4 p.p. at district level by the sixth month, p = 0.510. CONCLUSION: The study results show that IRS was associated with a significant reduction in malaria morbidity in northern Uganda in the first 3 months following IRS. The malaria reduction however waned by the fourth month following IRS.

Community-based differentiated service delivery models incorporating multi-month dispensing of antiretroviral treatment for newly stable people living with HIV receiving single annual clinical visits: a pooled analysis of two cluster-randomized trials in southern Africa.

INTRODUCTION: Differentiated service delivery (DSD) models for HIV treatment decrease health facility visit frequency and limit healthcare facility-based exposure to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. However, two important evidence gaps include understanding DSD effectiveness amongst clients commencing DSD within 12 months of antiretroviral treatment (ART) initiation and amongst clients receiving only single annual clinical consultations. To investigate these, we pooled data from two cluster-randomized trials investigating community-based DSD in Zimbabwe and Lesotho. METHODS: Individual-level participant data of newly stable adults enrolled between 6 and 12 months after ART initiation were pooled. Both trials (conducted between August 2017 and July 2019) had three arms: Standard-of-care three-monthly ART provision at healthcare facilities (SoC, control); ART provided three-monthly in community ART groups (CAGs) (3MC) and ART provided six-monthly in either CAGs or at community-distribution points (6MC). Clinical visits were three-monthly in SoC and annually in intervention arms. The primary outcome was retention in care and secondary outcomes were viral suppression (VS) and number of unscheduled facility visits 12 months after enrolment. Individual-level regression analyses were conducted by intention-to-treat specifying for clustering and adjusted for country. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: A total of 599 participants were included; 212 (35.4%), 128 (21.4%) and 259 (43.2%) in SoC, 3MC and 6MC, respectively. Few participants aged <25 years were included (n = 32). After 12 months, 198 (93.4%), 123 (96.1%) and 248 (95.8%) were retained in SoC, 3MC and 6MC, respectively. Retention in 3MC was superior versus SoC, adjusted risk difference (aRD) = 4.6% (95% CI: 0.7%-8.5%). Retention in 6MC was non-inferior versus SoC, aRD = 1.7% (95% CI: -2.5%-5.9%) (prespecified non-inferiority aRD margin -3.25%). VS was similar between arms, 99.3, 98.6 and 98.1% in SoC, 3MC and 6MC, respectively. Adjusted risk ratio's for VS were 0.98 (95% CI: 0.92-1.03) for 3MC versus SoC, and 0.98 (CI: 0.95-1.00) for 6MC versus SoC. Unscheduled clinic visits were not increased in intervention arms: incidence rate ratio = 0.53 (CI: 0.16-1.80) for 3MC versus SoC; and 0.82 (CI: 0.25-2.79) for 6MC versus SoC. CONCLUSIONS: Community-based DSD incorporating three- and six-monthly ART refills and single annual clinical visits were at least non-inferior to standard facility-based care amongst newly stable ART clients aged ≥25 years. ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03238846 & NCT03438370.

Economic evaluation of differentiated service delivery models for HIV treatment in Lesotho: costs to providers and patients.

INTRODUCTION: Lesotho, the country with the second-highest HIV/AIDS prevalence (23.6%) in the world, has made considerable progress towards achieving the "95-95-95" UNAIDS targets, but recent success in improving treatment access to all known HIV positive individuals has severely strained existing healthcare infrastructure, financial and human resources. Lesotho also faces the challenge of a largely rural population who incur a significant time and financial burden to visit healthcare facilities. Using data from a cluster-randomized non-inferiority trial conducted between August 2017 and July 2019, we evaluated costs to providers and costs to patients of community-based differentiated models of multi-month delivery of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Lesotho. METHODS: The trial of multi-month dispensing compared 12-month retention in care among three arms: conventional care, which required quarterly facility visits and ART dispensation (3MF); three-month community adherence groups (CAGs) (3MC) and six-month community ART distribution (6MCD). We first estimated the average total annual cost of providing HIV care and treatment followed by the total cost per patient retained 12 months after entry for each arm, using resource utilization data from the trial and local unit costs. We then estimated the average annual cost to patients in each arm with self-reported questionnaire data. RESULTS: The average total annual cost of providing HIV care and treatment per patient was the highest in the 3MF arm ($122.28, standard deviation [SD] $23.91), followed by 3MC ($114.20, SD $23.03) and the 6MCD arm ($112.58, SD $21.44). Per patient retained in care, the average provider cost was $125.99 (SD $24.64) in the 3MF arm and 6% to 8% less for the other two arms ($118.38, SD $23.87 and $118.83, SD $22.63 for the 3MC and 6MCD respectively). There was a large reduction in patient costs for both differentiated service delivery arms: from $44.42 (SD $12.06) annually in the 3MF arm to $16.34 (SD $5.11) annually in the 3MC (63% reduction) and $18.77 (SD $8.31) annually in 6MCD arm (58% reduction). CONCLUSIONS: Community-based, multi-month models of ART in Lesotho are likely to produce small cost savings to treatment providers and large savings to patients in Lesotho. Patient cost savings may support long-term adherence and retention in care.

Out-of-Facility Multimonth Dispensing of Antiretroviral Treatment: A Pooled Analysis Using Individual Patient Data From Cluster-Randomized Trials in Southern Africa.

BACKGROUND: Out-of-facility multi-month dispensing (MMD) is a differentiated service delivery model which provides antiretroviral treatment (ART) at intervals of up to 6 monthly in the community. Limited randomized evidence investigating out-of-facility MMD is available. We evaluated participant outcomes and compared out-of-facility MMD models using data from cluster-randomized trials in Southern Africa. SETTING: Eight districts in Zimbabwe and Lesotho. METHODS: Individual-level participant data from 2 cluster-randomized trials that included stable adults receiving ART at 60 facilities were pooled. Both trials had 3 arms: ART collected 3-monthly at healthcare facilities (3MF, control); ART provided three-monthly in community ART groups (CAGs) (3MC); and ART provided 6-monthly in either CAGs or on an individual provider-patient basis (6MC). Participant retention, viral suppression and incidence of unscheduled facility visits were compared. RESULTS: Ten thousand one hundred thirty-six participants were included, 3817 (37.7%), 2893 (28.5%) and 3426 (33.8%) in arms 3MF, 3MC and 6MC, respectively. After 12 months, retention was non-inferior for 3MC (95.7%) vs. 3MF (95.0%) {adjusted risk difference (aRD) = 0.3 [95% confidence interval (CI): -0.8 to 1.4]}; and 6MC (95.1%) vs. 3MF [aRD = -0.2 (95% CI: -1.4 to 1.0)]. Retention was greater amongst intervention arm participants in CAGs versus 6MC participants not in CAGs, aRD = 1.5% (95% CI: 0.2% to 2.9%). Viral suppression was excellent (≥98%) and unscheduled facility visits were not increased in the intervention arms. CONCLUSIONS: Three and 6-monthly out-of-facility MMD was non-inferior versus facility-based care for stable ART patients. Out-of-facility 6-monthly MMD should incorporate small group peer support whenever possible. CLINICALTRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03238846 and NCT03438370.

Twelve-Month Outcomes of Community-Based Differentiated Models of Multimonth Dispensing of ART Among Stable HIV-Infected Adults in Lesotho: A Cluster-Randomized Noninferiority Trial.

BACKGROUND: Lesotho adopted the test-and-treat approach for HIV treatment in June 2016, which increased antiretroviral treatment (ART) clinic volume. We evaluated community-based vs. facility-based differentiated models of multimonth dispensing of ART among stable HIV-infected adults in Lesotho. METHODS: Thirty facilities were randomized to 3 arms, facility 3-monthly ART (3MF) (control), community ART groups (3MC), and 6-monthly community distribution points (6MCD). We estimated risk differences (RDs) between arms using population-averaged generalized estimating equations, controlling for baseline imbalances and specifying for clustering. The primary outcome was retention in ART care by intention-to-treat and virologic suppression as a secondary outcome (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03438370). RESULTS: A total of 5,336 participants were enrolled, with 1898, 1558, and 1880 in 3MF, 3MC, and 6MCD, respectively. Retention in ART care was not different across arms and achieved the prespecified noninferiority limit (-3.25%) between 3MC vs. 3MF (control); 6MCD vs. 3MF; and 6MCD vs. 3MC, adjusted RD = -0.1% [95% confidence interval (CI): -1.6% to 1.5%], adjusted RD = -1.3% (95% CI: -3.0% to 0.5%), and adjusted RD = -1.2% (95% CI: -2.9% to 0.5%), respectively. After 12 months, 98.6% (n = 1503), 98.1% (n = 1126), and 98.3% (n = 1285) were virally load (VL) suppressed in 3MF, 3MC, and 6MCD, respectively. There were no differences in VL between 3MC vs. control and 6MCD vs. control, risk ratio (RR) = 1.00 (95% CI: 0.98 to 1.01) and RR = 1.00 (95% CI: 0.98 to 1.01), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: There were no differences in retention and VL suppression for stable HIV-infected participants receiving multimonth dispensing of ART within community-based differentiated models when compared with the facility-based standard-of-care model.