Molecular MR Imaging of Renal Fibrogenesis in Mice.

BACKGROUND: In most CKDs, lysyl oxidase oxidation of collagen forms allysine side chains, which then form stable crosslinks. We hypothesized that MRI with the allysine-targeted probe Gd-oxyamine (OA) could be used to measure this process and noninvasively detect renal fibrosis. METHODS: Two mouse models were used: hereditary nephritis in Col4a3-deficient mice (Alport model) and a glomerulonephritis model, nephrotoxic nephritis (NTN). MRI measured the difference in kidney relaxation rate, ΔR1, after intravenous Gd-OA administration. Renal tissue was collected for biochemical and histological analysis. RESULTS: ΔR1 was increased in the renal cortex of NTN mice and in both the cortex and the medulla of Alport mice. Ex vivo tissue analyses showed increased collagen and Gd-OA levels in fibrotic renal tissues and a high correlation between tissue collagen and ΔR1. CONCLUSIONS: Magnetic resonance imaging using Gd-OA is potentially a valuable tool for detecting and staging renal fibrogenesis.

Structural Investigations, Cellular Imaging, and Radiolabeling of Neutral, Polycationic, and Polyanionic Functional Metalloporphyrin Conjugates.

Over the past decade, porphyrin derivatives have emerged as invaluable synthetic building blocks and theranostic kits for the delivery of cellular fluorescence imaging and photodynamic therapy. Tetraphenylporphyrin (TPP), its metal complexes, and related derivatives have been investigated for their use as dyes in histology and as components of multimodal imaging probes. The photophysical properties of porphyrin-metal complexes featuring radiometals have been a focus of our attention for the realization of fluorescence imaging probes coupled with radioimaging capabilities and therapeutic potential having "true" theranostic promise. We report hereby on the synthesis, radiochemistry, structural investigations, and preliminary in vitro and in vivo uptake studies on a range of functionalized porphyrin-based derivatives. In pursuit of developing new porphyrin-based probes for multimodality imaging applications, we report new functionalized neutral, polycationic, and polyanionic porphyrins incorporating nitroimidazole and sulfonamide moieties, which were used as targeting groups to improve the notoriously poor pharmacokinetics of porphyrin tags. The resulting functional metalloporphyrin species were stable under serum challenges and the nitroimidazole and sulfonamide derivatives remained fluorescent, allowing in vitro confocal studies and visualization of the lysosomal uptake in a gallium(III) sulfonamide derivative. The molecular structures of selected porphyrin derivatives were determined by single crystal X-ray diffraction using synchrotron radiation. We also investigated the nature of the emission/excitation behavior of model functional porphyrins using in silico approaches such as TD DFT in simple solvation models. The conjugation of porphyrins with the [7-13] and [7-14] fragments of bombesin was also achieved, to provide targeting of the gastrin releasing peptide receptor (GRPR). Depending on the metal, probe conjugates of relevance for single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) or positron emission tomography (PET) probes have been designed and tested hereby, using TPP and related functional free base porphyrins as the bifunctional chelator synthetic scaffold and 111In[In] or 68Ga[Ga], respectively, as the central metal ions. Interestingly, for simple porphyrin conjugates good radiochemical incorporation was obtained for both radiometals, but the presence of peptides significantly diminished the radio-incorporation yields. Although the gallium-68 radiochemistry of the bombesin conjugates did not show radiochemical incorporation suitable for in vivo studies, likely because the presence of the peptide changed the behavior of the TPP-NH2 synthon taken alone, the optical imaging assays indicated that the conjugated peptide tags do mediate uptake of the porphyrin units into cells.

Oligonucleotide-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles for Synchronous Telomerase Inhibition, Radiosensitization, and Delivery of Theranostic Radionuclides.

Telomerase represents an attractive target in oncology as it is expressed in cancer but not in normal tissues. The oligonucleotide inhibitors of telomerase represent a promising anticancer strategy, although poor cellular uptake can restrict their efficacy. In this study, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were used to enhance oligonucleotide uptake. "match" oligonucleotides complementary to the telomerase RNA template subunit (hTR) and "scramble" (control) oligonucleotides were conjugated to diethylenetriamine pentaacetate (DTPA) for 111In-labeling. AuNPs (15.5 nm) were decorated with a monofunctional layer of oligonucleotides (ON-AuNP) or a multifunctional layer of oligonucleotides, PEG(polethylene glycol)800-SH (to reduce AuNP aggregation) and the cell-penetrating peptide Tat (ON-AuNP-Tat). Match-AuNP enhanced the cellular uptake of radiolabeled oligonucleotides while retaining the ability to inhibit telomerase activity. The addition of Tat to AuNPs increased nuclear localization. 111In-Match-AuNP-Tat induced DNA double-strand breaks and caused a dose-dependent reduction in clonogenic survival of telomerase-positive cells but not telomerase-negative cells. hTR inhibition has been reported to sensitize cancer cells to ionizing radiation, and 111In-Match-AuNP-Tat therefore holds promise as a vector for delivery of radionuclides into cancer cells while simultaneously sensitizing them to the effects of the emitted radiation.

Molecular Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Lung Fibrogenesis with an Oxyamine-Based Probe.

Fibrogenesis is the active production of extracellular matrix in response to tissue injury. In many chronic diseases persistent fibrogenesis results in the accumulation of scar tissue, which can lead to organ failure and death. However, no non-invasive technique exists to assess this key biological process. All tissue fibrogenesis results in the formation of allysine, which enables collagen cross-linking and leads to tissue stiffening and scar formation. We report herein a novel allysine-binding gadolinium chelate (GdOA), that can non-invasively detect and quantify the extent of fibrogenesis using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We demonstrate that GdOA signal enhancement correlates with the extent of the disease and is sensitive to a therapeutic response.

Radiolabelled porphyrins in nuclear medicine.

Amongst tumour-specific substances, hematoporphyrin and synthetic porphyrin derivatives have been widely investigated to identify and delineate neoplastic and malignant tissue. Whilst the tumour localization exhibited by selected porphyrin species has been exploited through photodynamic therapy, several examples of porphyrin derivatives with varied peripheral functionality have been radiolabelled with the aim of developing porphyrin-based nuclear imaging and therapeutic agents. In this review, we look at the approaches and advances in the preparation and uses of such radiolabelled agents for imaging and therapy.

Structural and Functional Diversity in Rigid Thiosemicarbazones with Extended Aromatic Frameworks: Microwave-Assisted Synthesis and Structural Investigations.

The long-standing interest in thiosemicarbazones (TSCs) has been largely driven by their potential toward theranostic applications including cellular imaging assays and multimodality imaging. We focus herein on the results of our new investigations into: (a) the structural chemistry of a family of rigid mono(thiosemicarbazone) ligands characterized by extended and aromatic backbones and (b) the formation of their corresponding thiosemicarbazonato Zn(II) and Cu(II) metal complexes. The synthesis of new ligands and their Zn(II) complexes was performed using a rapid, efficient and straightforward microwave-assisted method which superseded their preparation by conventional heating. We describe hereby new microwave irradiation protocols that are suitable for both imine bond formation reactions in the thiosemicabazone ligand synthesis and for Zn(II) metalation reactions. The new thiosemicarbazone ligands, denoted HL, mono(4-R-3-thiosemicarbazone)quinone, and their corresponding Zn(II) complexes, denoted ZnL2, mono(4-R-3-thiosemicarbazone)quinone, where R = H, Me, Ethyl, Allyl, and Phenyl, quinone = acenapthnenequinone (AN), aceanthrenequinone (AA), phenanthrenequinone (PH), and pyrene-4,5-dione (PY) were isolated and fully characterized spectroscopically and by mass spectrometry. A plethora of single crystal X-ray diffraction structures were obtained and analyzed and the geometries were also validated by DFT calculations. The Zn(II) complexes presented either distorted octahedral geometry or tetrahedral arrangements of the O/N/S donors around the metal center. The modification of the thiosemicarbazide moiety at the exocyclic N atoms with a range of organic linkers was also explored, opening the way to bioconjugation protocols for these compounds. The radiolabeling of these thiosemicarbazones with 64Cu was achieved under mild conditions for the first time: this cyclotron-available radioisotope of copper (t1/2 = 12.7 h; ß+ 17.8%; ß- 38.4%) is well-known for its proficiency in positron emission tomography (PET) imaging and for its theranostic potential, on the basis of the preclinical and clinical cancer research of established bis(thiosemicarbazones), such as the hypoxia tracer 64Cu-labeled copper(diacetyl-bis(N4-methylthiosemicarbazone)], [64Cu]Cu(ATSM). Our labeling reactions proceeded in high radiochemical incorporation (>80% for the most sterically unencumbered ligands) showing promise of these species as building blocks for theranostics and synthetic scaffolds for multimodality imaging probes. The corresponding "cold" Cu(II) metalations were also performed under the mild conditions mimicking the radiolabeling protocols. Interestingly, room temperature or mild heating led to Cu(II) incorporation in the 1:1, as well as 1:2 metal: ligand ratios in the new complexes, as evident from extensive mass spectrometry investigations backed by EPR measurements, and the formation of Cu(L)2-type species prevails, especially for the AN-Ph thiosemicarbazone ligand (L-). The cytotoxicity levels of a selection of ligands and Zn(II) complexes in this class were further tested in commonly used human cancer cell lines (HeLa, human cervical cancer cells, and PC-3, human prostate cancer cells). Tests showed that their IC50 levels are comparable to that of the clinical drug cis-platin, evaluated under similar conditions. The cellular internalizations of the selected ZnL2-type compounds Zn(AN-Allyl)2, Zn(AA-Allyl)2, Zn(PH-Allyl)2, and Zn(PY-Allyl)2 were evaluated in living PC-3 cells using laser confocal fluorescent spectroscopy and these experiments showed exclusively cytoplasmic distributions.

Molecular Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Liver Fibrosis and Fibrogenesis Is Not Altered by Inflammation.

METHODS: Three groups of mice that develop either mild type 2 inflammation and fibrosis (wild type), severe fibrosis with exacerbated type 2 inflammation (Il10-/-Il12b-/-Il13ra2-/-), or minimal fibrosis with marked type 1 inflammation (Il4ra∂/∂) after infection with S. mansoni were imaged using both probes for determination of signal enhancement. Schistosoma mansoni-infected wild-type mice developed chronic liver fibrosis. RESULTS: The liver MR signal enhancement after either probe administration was significantly higher in S. mansoni-infected wild-type mice compared with naive animals. The S. mansoni-infected Il4ra∂/∂ mice presented with little liver signal enhancement after probe injection despite the presence of substantial inflammation. Schistosoma mansoni-infected Il10-/-Il12b-/-Il13ra2-/- mice presented with marked fibrosis, which correlated to increased signal enhancement after injection of either probe. CONCLUSIONS: Both MR probes, EP-3533 and Gd-Hyd, were specific for fibrosis in this model of chronic liver disease regardless of the presence or severity of the underlying inflammation. These results, in addition to previous findings, show the potential application of both molecular MR probes for detection and quantification of fibrosis from various etiologies.

Quantitative, noninvasive MRI characterization of disease progression in a mouse model of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis.

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is an increasing cause of chronic liver disease characterized by steatosis, inflammation, and fibrosis which can lead to cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, and mortality. Quantitative, noninvasive methods for characterizing the pathophysiology of NASH at both the preclinical and clinical level are sorely needed. We report here a multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) protocol with the fibrogenesis probe Gd-Hyd to characterize fibrotic disease activity and steatosis in a common mouse model of NASH. Mice were fed a choline-deficient, L-amino acid-defined, high-fat diet (CDAHFD) to induce NASH with advanced fibrosis. Mice fed normal chow and CDAHFD underwent MRI after 2, 6, 10 and 14 weeks to measure liver T1, T2*, fat fraction, and dynamic T1-weighted Gd-Hyd enhanced imaging of the liver. Steatosis, inflammation, and fibrosis were then quantified by histology. NASH and fibrosis developed quickly in CDAHFD fed mice with strong correlation between morphometric steatosis quantification and liver fat estimated by MRI (r = 0.90). Sirius red histology and collagen quantification confirmed increasing fibrosis over time (r = 0.82). Though baseline T1 and T2* measurements did not correlate with fibrosis, Gd-Hyd signal enhancement provided a measure of the extent of active fibrotic disease progression and correlated strongly with lysyl oxidase expression. Gd-Hyd MRI accurately detects fibrogenesis in a mouse model of NASH with advanced fibrosis and can be combined with other MR measures, like fat imaging, to more accurately assess disease burden.

Radiolabeled Oligonucleotides Targeting the RNA Subunit of Telomerase Inhibit Telomerase and Induce DNA Damage in Telomerase-Positive Cancer Cells.

Telomerase is expressed in the majority (>85%) of tumors, but has restricted expression in normal tissues. Long-term telomerase inhibition in malignant cells results in progressive telomere shortening and reduction in cell proliferation. Here we report the synthesis and characterization of radiolabeled oligonucleotides that target the RNA subunit of telomerase, hTR, simultaneously inhibiting enzymatic activity and delivering radiation intracellularly. Oligonucleotides complementary (Match) and noncomplementary (Scramble or Mismatch) to hTR were conjugated to diethylenetriaminepentaacetic dianhydride (DTPA), allowing radiolabeling with the Auger electron-emitting radionuclide indium-111 (111In). Match oligonucleotides inhibited telomerase activity with high potency, which was not observed with Scramble or Mismatch oligonucleotides. DTPA-conjugation and 111In-labeling did not change telomerase inhibition. In telomerase-positive cancer cells, unlabeled Match oligonucleotides had no effect on survival, however, 111In-labeled Match oligonucleotides significantly reduced clonogenic survival and upregulated the DNA damage marker γH2AX. Minimal radiotoxicity and DNA damage was observed in telomerase-negative cells exposed to 111In-Match oligonucleotides. Match oligonucleotides localized in close proximity to nuclear Cajal bodies in telomerase-positive cells. In comparison with Match oligonucleotides, 111In-Scramble or 111In-Mismatch oligonucleotides demonstrated reduced retention and negligible impact on cell survival. This study indicates the therapeutic activity of radiolabeled oligonucleotides that specifically target hTR through potent telomerase inhibition and DNA damage induction in telomerase-expressing cancer cells and paves the way for the development of novel oligonucleotide radiotherapeutics targeting telomerase-positive cancers. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings present a novel radiolabeled oligonucleotide for targeting telomerase-positive cancer cells that exhibits dual activity by simultaneously inhibiting telomerase and promoting radiation-induced genomic DNA damage.

Targeting telomerase with radiolabeled inhibitors.

The expression of telomerase in approximately 85% of cancers and its absence in the majority of normal cells makes it an attractive target for cancer therapy. However the lag period between initiation of telomerase inhibition and growth arrest makes direct inhibition alone an insufficient method of treatment. However, telomerase inhibition has been shown to enhance cancer cell radiosensitivity. To investigate the strategy of simultaneously inhibiting telomerase while delivering targeted radionuclide therapy to cancer cells, 123I-radiolabeled inhibitors of telomerase were synthesized and their effects on cancer cell survival studied. An 123I-labeled analogue of the telomerase inhibitor MST-312 inhibited telomerase with an IC50 of 1.58 µM (MST-312 IC50: 0.23 µM). Clonogenic assays showed a dose dependant effect of 123I-MST-312 on cell survival in a telomerase positive cell line, MDA-MB-435.

High sensitivity HPLC method for determination of the allysine concentration in tissue by use of a naphthol derivative.

Common to all fibrotic and metastatic diseases is the uncontrollable remodeling of tissue that leads to the accumulation of fibrous connective tissue components such as collagen and elastin. Build-up of fibrous tissue occurs through the cross-linking of collagen or elastin monomers, which is initiated through the oxidation of lysine residues to form α-aminoadipic-δ-semialdehyde (allysine). To provide a measure of the extent of collagen oxidation in disease models of fibrosis or metastasis, a rapid, sensitive HPLC method was developed to quantify the amount of allysine present in tissue. Allysine was reacted with sodium 2-naphthol-7-sulfonate under conditions typically applied for acid hydrolysis of tissues (6M HCl, 110°C, 24h) to prepare AL-NP, a fluorescent bis-naphthol derivative of allysine. High performance liquid chromatography was applied for analysis of allysine content. Under optimal reaction and detection conditions, successful separation of AL-NP was achieved with excellent analytical performance attained. Good linear relationship (R2=0.994) between peak area and concentration for AL-NP was attained for 0.35-175pmol of analyte. A detection limit of 0.02pmol in the standard sample with a 20µL injection was achieved for AL-NP, with satisfactory recovery from 88 to 100% determined. The method was applied in the quantification of allysine in healthy and fibrotic mouse lung tissue, with the fibrotic tissue showing a 2.5 fold increase in the content of allysine.

Molecular imaging of oxidized collagen quantifies pulmonary and hepatic fibrogenesis.

Fibrosis results from the dysregulation of tissue repair mechanisms affecting major organ systems, leading to chronic extracellular matrix buildup, and progressive, often fatal, organ failure. Current diagnosis relies on invasive biopsies. Noninvasive methods today cannot distinguish actively progressive fibrogenesis from stable scar, and thus are insensitive for monitoring disease activity or therapeutic responses. Collagen oxidation is a universal signature of active fibrogenesis that precedes collagen crosslinking. Biochemically targeting oxidized lysine residues formed by the action of lysyl oxidase on collagen with a small-molecule gadolinium chelate enables targeted molecular magnetic resonance imaging. This noninvasive direct biochemical elucidation of the fibrotic microenvironment specifically and robustly detected and staged pulmonary and hepatic fibrosis progression, and monitored therapeutic response in animal models. Furthermore, this paradigm is translatable and generally applicable to diverse fibroproliferative disorders.

Synthesis of sulfonamide conjugates of Cu(II), Ga(III), In(III), Re(V) and Zn(II) complexes: carbonic anhydrase inhibition studies and cellular imaging investigations.

Carbonic anhydrase IX (CA IX) is currently generating great interest as a marker of tumour hypoxia and a potential chemotherapeutic target. In order to test the principle that a CA IX inhibitor could be used for targeting PET or SPECT metallic radioisotopes to tumours we have prepared a number of conjugates involving aryl-sulfonamides or an acetazolamide derivative linked to a range of copper, indium, rhenium, 99m-technetium and zinc complexes. Radiolabelled (64)Cu and (99m)Tc analogues of the 'cold' Cu and some of the Re complexes were prepared in good radiochemical incorporation. Inhibition of various human carbonic anhydrase isoforms (I, II, IX and XII) was tested with the 'cold', non-radiolabelled complexes, and compared with an acetazolamide standard (AZA). The molecular structure of a new, tri-sulfonated porphyrin-labeled sulfonamide was determined using synchrotron X-ray crystallography.

Nanographene oxide-based radioimmunoconstructs for in vivo targeting and SPECT imaging of HER2-positive tumors.

Nanographene oxide (NGO) is a novel nano-wall material that tracks to tumors in vivo, and which, as a consequence of its large surface area, has the capacity to carry a large payload. This study explores the use of anti-HER2 antibody (trastuzumab)-conjugated NGO, radiolabeled with (111)In-benzyl-diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (BnDTPA) via ππ-stacking, for functional imaging. In two HER2-overexpressing murine models of human breast cancer, high tumor-to-muscle ratio was achieved, resulting in clear visualization of tumor using single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). In the BALB/neuT model and in BALB/c nu/nu mice bearing 231/H2N xenografts, tumor accumulation amounted to 12.7 ± 0.67 and 15.0 ± 3.7% of the injected dose/g (%ID/g) of tumor tissue at 72 h, with tumor-to-muscle ratios of 35:1 and 7:1, respectively. Radiolabeled NGO-trastuzumab conjugates demonstrated superior pharmacokinetics compared to radiolabeled trastuzumab without NGO, with more rapid clearance from the circulation. The use of NGO as a scaffold to build radiolabeled nano-immunoconstructs holds promise for molecular imaging of tumors.

Fluorescent gallium and indium bis(thiosemicarbazonates) and their radiolabelled analogues: synthesis, structures and cellular confocal fluorescence imaging investigations.

New fluorescent and biocompatible aromatic Ga(III)- and In(III)-bis(thiosemicarbazonato) complexes for dual mode optical and PET or SPECT molecular imaging have been synthesised via a synthetic method based on transmetallation reactions from Zn(II) precursors. Complexes have been fully characterised in the solid state by single crystal X-ray diffraction and in solution by spectroscopic methods (UV/Vis, fluorescence, (1)H and (13)C{(1)H} NMR). The bis(thiosemicarbazones) radiolabelled rapidly in high yields under mild conditions with (111)In (a gamma and Auger emitter for SPECT imaging and radiotherapy with t(1/2) = 2.8 d) and (68)Ga (a generator-available positron emitter for PET imaging with t(1/2) = 68 min). Cytotoxicity and biolocalisation studies using confocal fluorescence imaging and fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) techniques have been used to study their in vitro activities and stabilities in HeLa and PC-3 cells to ascertain their suitability as synthetic scaffolds for future multimodality molecular imaging in cancer diagnosis and therapy. The observation that the indium complexes show certain nuclear uptake could be of relevance towards developing (111)In therapeutic agents based on Auger electron emission to induce DNA damage.

Fluorescent copper(II) bis(thiosemicarbazonates): synthesis, structures, electron paramagnetic resonance, radiolabeling, in vitro cytotoxicity and confocal fluorescence microscopy studies.

Copper bis(4-ethyl-3-thiosemicarbazonato) acenaphthenequinone (1) and copper bis(4-methyl-3-thiosemicarbazonato) acenaphthenequinone (2) are synthesized and characterized in solution, in the solid state, and radiolabeled. Serum-protein binding radioassays show good stability in solution and about 25 % binding to protein over 1 h, which is comparable with the hypoxia selective tracer [(64)Cu(ATSM)]. Cyclic voltammetry shows fast and reversible reduction at redox potentials similar to the values known for hypoxia-selective copper compounds. However, despite this, complex 1 does not show any hypoxic-selective uptake in HeLa cells over 1-h standard assays. Possible reasons for this are studied by using the intrinsic fluorescence of the Cu(II) complexes to determine the cellular distributions and uptake mechanism by confocal microscopy. The complexes are found to bind to the external cell membrane and disperse evenly in the cytoplasm only after a very slow cell internalization (>1 h). No significant changes in distribution are observed by fluorescence imaging under hypoxic conditions. The rate of localization in the cytoplasm contrasts with their Zn(II) analogues, which are known to have fast cell uptake (up to 20 min) and a clear localization in lysosomes and mitochondria. The cytotoxicity mechanism of 1 over 24 h against a number of adherent cell lines is seen to be by membrane disruption and is of a comparable magnitude to that of [Cu(ATSM)], as demonstrated by methyl tetrazolium (MTT) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assays.

Cellular confocal fluorescence studies and cytotoxic activity of new Zn(II) bis(thiosemicarbazonato) complexes.

We report the synthesis and characterisation of new, highly fluorescent, zinc complexes of bis(thiosemicarbazone) ligands incorporating extended aromatic backbones which are cytotoxic at levels comparable to cisplatin; cellular fluorescence imaging studies suggest these cause cell death by disruption of mitochondria.

Designing Zn(II) and Cu(II) derivatives as probes for in vitro fluorescence imaging.

New M(II) bis(thiosemicarbazonato) complexes (M = Ni(II), Cu(II) and Zn(II)) featuring allyl groups at the exocyclic nitrogens have been synthesised. The complexes were characterised in solution by spectroscopic methods and their solid state structures determined by single crystal X-ray diffraction using synchrotron radiation. The Zn(II) complex was found to be intrinsically fluorescent and soluble in biocompatible media. The uptake of this Zn(II) complex in HeLa, MCF-7 and IGROV cancer cells was monitored by fluorescence microscopies (epi- and confocal fluorescence imaging). The radiolabelling to (64)Cu(II) bis(thiosemicarbazonato) complex was performed cleanly by transmetallation from the corresponding Zn(II) species using (64)Cu(OAc)(2).