Engineering 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) oxidation in Pseudomonas boosts tolerance and accelerates 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) production.

Due to its tolerance properties, Pseudomonas has gained particular interest as host for oxidative upgrading of the toxic aldehyde 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) into 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA), a promising biobased alternative to terephthalate in polyesters. However, until now, the native enzymes responsible for aldehyde oxidation are unknown. Here, we report the identification of the primary HMF-converting enzymes of P. taiwanensis VLB120 and P. putida KT2440 by extended gene deletions. The key players in HMF oxidation are a molybdenum-dependent periplasmic oxidoreductase and a cytoplasmic dehydrogenase. Deletion of the corresponding genes almost completely abolished HMF oxidation, leading instead to aldehyde reduction. In this context, two HMF-reducing dehydrogenases were also revealed. These discoveries enabled enhancement of Pseudomonas' furanic aldehyde oxidation machinery by genomic overexpression of the respective genes. The resulting BOX strains (Boosted OXidation) represent superior hosts for biotechnological synthesis of FDCA from HMF. The increased oxidation rates provide greatly elevated HMF tolerance, thus tackling one of the major drawbacks of whole-cell catalysis with this aldehyde. Furthermore, the ROX (Reduced OXidation) and ROAR (Reduced Oxidation And Reduction) deletion mutants offer a solid foundation for future development of Pseudomonads as biotechnological chassis notably for scenarios where rapid HMF conversion is undesirable.

Establishing an itaconic acid production process with Ustilago species on the low-cost substrate starch.

Ustilago maydis and Ustilago cynodontis are natural producers of a broad range of valuable molecules including itaconate, malate, glycolipids, and triacylglycerols. Both Ustilago species are insensitive toward medium impurities, and have previously been engineered for efficient itaconate production and stabilized yeast-like growth. Due to these features, these strains were already successfully used for the production of itaconate from different alternative feedstocks such as molasses, thick juice, and crude glycerol. Here, we analyzed the amylolytic capabilities of Ustilago species for metabolization of starch, a highly abundant and low-cost polymeric carbohydrate widely utilized as a substrate in several biotechnological processes. Ustilago cynodontis was found to utilize gelatinized potato starch for both growth and itaconate production, confirming the presence of extracellular amylolytic enzymes in Ustilago species. Starch was rapidly degraded by U. cynodontis, even though no α-amylase was detected. Further experiments indicate that starch hydrolysis is caused by the synergistic action of glucoamylase and α-glucosidase enzymes. The enzymes showed a maximum activity of around 0.5 U ml-1 at the fifth day after inoculation, and also released glucose from additional substrates, highlighting potential broader applications. In contrast to U. cynodontis, U. maydis showed no growth on starch accompanied with no detectable amylolytic activity.

Bio-upcycling of even and uneven medium-chain-length diols and dicarboxylates to polyhydroxyalkanoates using engineered Pseudomonas putida.

Bio-upcycling of plastics is an emerging alternative process that focuses on extracting value from a wide range of plastic waste streams. Such streams are typically too contaminated to be effectively processed using traditional recycling technologies. Medium-chain-length (mcl) diols and dicarboxylates (DCA) are major products of chemically or enzymatically depolymerized plastics, such as polyesters or polyethers. In this study, we enabled the efficient metabolism of mcl-diols and -DCA in engineered Pseudomonas putida as a prerequisite for subsequent bio-upcycling. We identified the transcriptional regulator GcdR as target for enabling metabolism of uneven mcl-DCA such as pimelate, and uncovered amino acid substitutions that lead to an increased coupling between the heterologous ß-oxidation of mcl-DCA and the native degradation of short-chain-length DCA. Adaptive laboratory evolution and subsequent reverse engineering unravelled two distinct pathways for mcl-diol metabolism in P. putida, namely via the hydroxy acid and subsequent native ß-oxidation or via full oxidation to the dicarboxylic acid that is further metabolized by heterologous ß-oxidation. Furthermore, we demonstrated the production of polyhydroxyalkanoates from mcl-diols and -DCA by a single strain combining all required metabolic features. Overall, this study provides a powerful platform strain for the bio-upcycling of complex plastic hydrolysates to polyhydroxyalkanoates and leads the path for future yield optimizations.

Itaconate Production from Crude Substrates with U. maydis: Scale-up of an Industrially Relevant Bioprocess.

BACKGROUND: Industrial by-products accrue in most agricultural or food-related production processes, but additional value chains have already been established for many of them. Crude glycerol has a 60% lower market value than commercial glucose, as large quantities are produced in the biodiesel industry, but its valorisation is still underutilized. Due to its high carbon content and the natural ability of many microorganisms to metabolise it, microbial upcycling is a suitable option for this waste product. RESULTS: In this work, the use of crude glycerol for the production of the value-added compound itaconate is demonstrated using the smut fungus Ustilago maydis. Starting with a highly engineered strain, itaconate production from an industrial glycerol waste stream was quickly established on a small scale, and the resulting yields were already competitive with processes using commercial sugars. Adaptive laboratory evolution resulted in an evolved strain with a 72% increased growth rate on glycerol. In the subsequent development and optimisation of a fed-batch process on a 1.5-2 L scale, the use of molasses, a side stream of sugar beet processing, eliminated the need for other expensive media components such as nitrogen or vitamins for biomass growth. The optimised process was scaled up to 150 L, achieving an overall titre of 72 g L- 1, a yield of 0.34 g g- 1, and a productivity of 0.54 g L- 1 h- 1. CONCLUSIONS: Pilot-scale itaconate production from the complementary waste streams molasses and glycerol has been successfully established. In addition to achieving competitive performance indicators, the proposed dual feedstock strategy offers lower process costs and carbon footprint for the production of bio-based itaconate.

Development of an itaconic acid production process with Ustilaginaceae on alternative feedstocks.

BACKGROUND: Currently, Aspergillus terreus is used for the industrial production of itaconic acid. Although, alternative feedstock use in fermentations is crucial for cost-efficient and sustainable itaconic acid production, their utilisation with A. terreus most often requires expensive pretreatment. Ustilaginacea are robust alternatives for itaconic acid production, evading the challenges, including the pretreatment of crude feedstocks regarding reduction of manganese concentration, that A. terreus poses. RESULTS: In this study, five different Ustilago strains were screened for their growth and production of itaconic acid on defined media. The most promising strains were then used to find a suitable alternative feedstock, based on the local food industry. U. cynodontis ITA Max pH, a highly engineered production strain, was selected to determine the biologically available nitrogen concentration in thick juice and molasses. Based on these findings, thick juice was chosen as feedstock to ensure the necessary nitrogen limitation for itaconic acid production. U. cynodontis ITA Max pH was further characterised regarding osmotolerance and product inhibition and a successful scale-up to a 2 L stirred tank reactor was accomplished. A titer of 106.4 gitaconic acid/L with a theoretical yield of 0.50 gitaconic acid/gsucrose and a space-time yield of 0.72 gitaconic acid/L/h was reached. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the utilisation of alternative feedstocks to produce ITA with Ustilaginaceae, without drawbacks in either titer or yield, compared to glucose fermentations.

A Pseudomonas taiwanensis malonyl-CoA platform strain for polyketide synthesis.

Malonyl-CoA is a central precursor for biosynthesis of a wide range of complex secondary metabolites. The development of platform strains with increased malonyl-CoA supply can contribute to the efficient production of secondary metabolites, especially if such strains exhibit high tolerance towards these chemicals. In this study, Pseudomonas taiwanensis VLB120 was engineered for increased malonyl-CoA availability to produce bacterial and plant-derived polyketides. A multi-target metabolic engineering strategy focusing on decreasing the malonyl-CoA drain and increasing malonyl-CoA precursor availability, led to an increased production of various malonyl-CoA-derived products, including pinosylvin, resveratrol and flaviolin. The production of flaviolin, a molecule deriving from five malonyl-CoA molecules, was doubled compared to the parental strain by this malonyl-CoA increasing strategy. Additionally, the engineered platform strain enabled production of up to 84 mg L-1 resveratrol from supplemented p-coumarate. One key finding of this study was that acetyl-CoA carboxylase overexpression majorly contributed to an increased malonyl-CoA availability for polyketide production in dependence on the used strain-background and whether downstream fatty acid synthesis was impaired, reflecting its complexity in metabolism. Hence, malonyl-CoA availability is primarily determined by competition of the production pathway with downstream fatty acid synthesis, while supply reactions are of secondary importance for compounds that derive directly from malonyl-CoA in Pseudomonas.

Engineering a Pseudomonas taiwanensis 4-coumarate platform for production of para-hydroxy aromatics with high yield and specificity.

Aromatics are valuable bulk or fine chemicals with a myriad of important applications. Currently, their vast majority is produced from petroleum associated with many negative aspects. The bio-based synthesis of aromatics contributes to the much-required shift towards a sustainable economy. To this end, microbial whole-cell catalysis is a promising strategy allowing the valorization of abundant feedstocks derived from biomass to yield de novo-synthesized aromatics. Here, we engineered tyrosine-overproducing derivatives of the streamlined chassis strain Pseudomonas taiwanensis GRC3 for efficient and specific production of 4-coumarate and derived aromatics. This required pathway optimization to avoid the accumulation of tyrosine or trans-cinnamate as byproducts. Although application of tyrosine-specific ammonia-lyases prevented the formation of trans-cinnamate, they did not completely convert tyrosine to 4-coumarate, thereby displaying a significant bottleneck. The use of a fast but unspecific phenylalanine/tyrosine ammonia-lyase from Rhodosporidium toruloides (RtPAL) alleviated this bottleneck, but caused phenylalanine conversion to trans-cinnamate. This byproduct formation was greatly reduced through the reverse engineering of a point mutation in prephenate dehydratase domain-encoding pheA. This upstream pathway engineering enabled efficient 4-coumarate production with a specificity of >95% despite using an unspecific ammonia-lyase, without creating an auxotrophy. In shake flask batch cultivations, 4-coumarate yields of up to 21.5% (Cmol/Cmol) from glucose and 32.4% (Cmol/Cmol) from glycerol were achieved. Additionally, the product spectrum was diversified by extending the 4-coumarate biosynthetic pathway to enable the production of 4-vinylphenol, 4-hydroxyphenylacetate, and 4-hydroxybenzoate with yields of 32.0, 23.0, and 34.8% (Cmol/Cmol) from glycerol, respectively.

Characterization and engineering of branched short-chain dicarboxylate metabolism in Pseudomonas reveals resistance to fungal 2-hydroxyparaconate.

In recent years branched short-chain dicarboxylates (BSCD) such as itaconic acid gained increasing interest in both medicine and biotechnology. Their use as building blocks for plastics urges for developing microbial upcycling strategies to provide sustainable end-of-life solutions. Furthermore, many BSCD exhibit anti-bacterial properties or exert immunomodulatory effects in macrophages, indicating a medical relevance for this group of molecules. For both of these applications, a detailed understanding of the microbial metabolism of these compounds is essential. In this study, the metabolic pathway of BSCD degradation from Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 was studied in detail by heterologously transferring it to Pseudomonas putida. Heterologous expression of the PA0878-0886 itaconate metabolism gene cluster enabled P. putida KT2440 to metabolize itaconate, (S)- and (R)-methylsuccinate, (S)-citramalate, and mesaconate. The functions of the so far uncharacterized genes PA0879 and PA0881 were revealed and proven to extend the substrate range of the core degradation pathway. Furthermore, the uncharacterized gene PA0880 was discovered to encode a 2-hydroxyparaconate (2-HP) lactonase that catalyzes the cleavage of the itaconate derivative 2-HP to itatartarate. Interestingly, 2-HP was found to inhibit growth of the engineered P. putida on itaconate. All in all, this study extends the substrate range of P. putida to include BSCD for bio-upcycling of high-performance polymers, and also identifies 2-HP as promising candidate for anti-microbial applications.

Microbial synthesis of the plant natural product precursor p-coumaric acid with Corynebacterium glutamicum.

BACKGROUND: Phenylpropanoids such as p-coumaric acid represent important precursors for the synthesis of a broad range of plant secondary metabolites including stilbenoids, flavonoids, and lignans, which are of pharmacological interest due to their health-promoting properties. Although extraction from plant material or chemical synthesis is possible, microbial synthesis of p-coumaric acid from glucose has the advantage of being less expensive and more resource efficient. In this study, Corynebacterium glutamicum was engineered for the production of the plant polyphenol precursor p-coumaric acid from glucose. RESULTS: Heterologous expression of the tyrosine ammonia-lyase encoding gene from Flavobacterium johnsoniae enabled the conversion of endogenously provided tyrosine to p-coumaric acid. Product consumption was avoided by abolishing essential reactions of the phenylpropanoid degradation pathway. Accumulation of anthranilate as a major byproduct was eliminated by reducing the activity of anthranilate synthase through targeted mutagenesis to avoid tryptophan auxotrophy. Subsequently, the carbon flux into the shikimate pathway was increased, phenylalanine biosynthesis was reduced, and phosphoenolpyruvate availability was improved to boost p-coumaric acid accumulation. A maximum titer of 661 mg/L p-coumaric acid (4 mM) in defined mineral medium was reached. Finally, the production strain was utilized in co-cultivations with a C. glutamicum strain previously engineered for the conversion of p-coumaric acid into the polyphenol resveratrol. These co-cultivations enabled the synthesis of 31.2 mg/L (0.14 mM) resveratrol from glucose without any p-coumaric acid supplementation. CONCLUSIONS: The utilization of a heterologous tyrosine ammonia-lyase in combination with optimization of the shikimate pathway enabled the efficient production of p-coumaric acid with C. glutamicum. Reducing the carbon flux into the phenylalanine and tryptophan branches was the key to success along with the introduction of feedback-resistant enzyme variants.

The metabolic potential of plastics as biotechnological carbon sources - Review and targets for the future.

The plastic crisis requires drastic measures, especially for the plastics' end-of-life. Mixed plastic fractions are currently difficult to recycle, but microbial metabolism might open new pathways. With new technologies for degradation of plastics to oligo- and monomers, these carbon sources can be used in biotechnology for the upcycling of plastic waste to valuable products, such as bioplastics and biosurfactants. We briefly summarize well-known monomer degradation pathways and computed their theoretical yields for industrially interesting products. With this information in hand, we calculated replacement scenarios of existing fossil-based synthesis routes for the same products. Thereby, we highlight fossil-based products for which plastic monomers might be attractive alternative carbon sources. Notably, not the highest yield of product on substrate of the biochemical route, but rather the (in-)efficiency of the petrochemical routes (i.e., carbon, energy use) determines the potential of biochemical plastic upcycling. Our results might serve as a guide for future metabolic engineering efforts towards a sustainable plastic economy.

Towards bio-upcycling of polyethylene terephthalate.

Over 359 million tons of plastics were produced worldwide in 2018, with significant growth expected in the near future, resulting in the global challenge of end-of-life management. The recent identification of enzymes that degrade plastics previously considered non-biodegradable opens up opportunities to steer the plastic recycling industry into the realm of biotechnology. Here, the sequential conversion of post-consumer polyethylene terephthalate (PET) into two types of bioplastics is presented: a medium chain-length polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) and a novel bio-based poly(amide urethane) (bio-PU). PET films are hydrolyzed by a thermostable polyester hydrolase yielding highly pure terephthalate and ethylene glycol. The obtained hydrolysate is used directly as a feedstock for a terephthalate-degrading Pseudomonas umsongensis GO16, also evolved to efficiently metabolize ethylene glycol, to produce PHA. The strain is further modified to secrete hydroxyalkanoyloxy-alkanoates (HAAs), which are used as monomers for the chemo-catalytic synthesis of bio-PU. In short, a novel value-chain for PET upcycling is shown that circumvents the costly purification of PET monomers, adding technological flexibility to the global challenge of end-of-life management of plastics.

Engineering adipic acid metabolism in Pseudomonas putida.

Bio-upcycling of plastics is an upcoming alternative approach for the valorization of diverse polymer waste streams that are too contaminated for traditional recycling technologies. Adipic acid and other medium-chain-length dicarboxylates are key components of many plastics including polyamides, polyesters, and polyurethanes. This study endows Pseudomonas putida KT2440 with efficient metabolism of these dicarboxylates. The dcaAKIJP genes from Acinetobacter baylyi, encoding initial uptake and activation steps for dicarboxylates, were heterologously expressed. Genomic integration of these dca genes proved to be a key factor in efficient and reliable expression. In spite of this, adaptive laboratory evolution was needed to connect these initial steps to the native metabolism of P. putida, thereby enabling growth on adipate as sole carbon source. Genome sequencing of evolved strains revealed a central role of a paa gene cluster, which encodes parts of the phenylacetate metabolic degradation pathway with parallels to adipate metabolism. Fast growth required the additional disruption of the regulator-encoding psrA, which upregulates redundant ß-oxidation genes. This knowledge enabled the rational reverse engineering of a strain that can not only use adipate, but also other medium-chain-length dicarboxylates like suberate and sebacate. The reverse engineered strain grows on adipate with a rate of 0.35 ± 0.01 h-1, reaching a final biomass yield of 0.27 ± 0.00 gCDW gadipate-1. In a nitrogen-limited medium this strain produced polyhydroxyalkanoates from adipate up to 25% of its CDW. This proves its applicability for the upcycling of mixtures of polymers made from fossile resources into biodegradable counterparts.

Adaptive laboratory evolution of Pseudomonas putida and Corynebacterium glutamicum to enhance anthranilate tolerance.

Microbial bioproduction of the aromatic acid anthranilate (ortho-aminobenzoate) has the potential to replace its current, environmentally demanding production process. The host organism employed for such a process needs to fulfil certain demands to achieve industrially relevant product levels. As anthranilate is toxic for microorganisms, the use of particularly robust production hosts can overcome issues from product inhibition. The microorganisms Corynebacterium glutamicum and Pseudomonas putida are known for high tolerance towards a variety of chemicals and could serve as promising platform strains. In this study, the resistance of both wild-type strains towards anthranilate was assessed. To further enhance their native tolerance, adaptive laboratory evolution (ALE) was applied. Sequential batch fermentation processes were developed, adapted to the cultivation demands for C. glutamicum and P. putida, to enable long-term cultivation in the presence of anthranilate. Isolation and analysis of single mutants revealed phenotypes with improved growth behaviour in the presence of anthranilate for both strains. The characterization and improvement of both potential hosts provide an important basis for further process optimization and will aid the establishment of an industrially competitive method for microbial synthesis of anthranilate.

Laboratory evolution reveals the metabolic and regulatory basis of ethylene glycol metabolism by Pseudomonas putida KT2440.

Pollution from ethylene glycol, and plastics containing this monomer, represent a significant environmental problem. The investigation of its microbial metabolism therefore provides insights into the environmental fate of this pollutant and also enables its utilization as a carbon source for microbial biotechnology. Here, we reveal the genomic and metabolic basis of ethylene glycol metabolism in Pseudomonas putida KT2440. Although this strain cannot grow on ethylene glycol as sole carbon source, it can be used to generate growth-enhancing reducing equivalents upon co-feeding with acetate. Mutants that utilize ethylene glycol as sole carbon source were isolated through adaptive laboratory evolution. Genomic analysis of these mutants revealed a central role of the transcriptional regulator GclR, which represses the glyoxylate carboligase pathway as part of a larger metabolic context of purine and allantoin metabolism. Secondary mutations in a transcriptional regulator encoded by PP_2046 and a porin encoded by PP_2662 further improved growth on ethylene glycol in evolved strains, likely by balancing fluxes through the initial oxidations of ethylene glycol to glyoxylate. With this knowledge, we reverse engineered an ethylene glycol utilizing strain and thus revealed the metabolic and regulatory basis that are essential for efficient ethylene glycol metabolism in P. putida KT2440.

The interplay between transport and metabolism in fungal itaconic acid production.

Besides enzymatic conversions, many eukaryotic metabolic pathways also involve transport proteins that shuttle molecules between subcellular compartments, or into the extracellular space. Fungal itaconate production involves two such transport steps, involving an itaconate transport protein (Itp), and a mitochondrial tricarboxylate transporter (Mtt). The filamentous ascomycete Aspergillus terreus and the unicellular basidiomycete Ustilago maydis both produce itaconate, but do so via very different molecular pathways, and under very different cultivation conditions. In contrast, the transport proteins of these two strains are assumed to have a similar function. This study aims to investigate the roles of both the extracellular and mitochondrial transporters from these two organisms by expressing them in the corresponding U. maydis knockouts and monitoring the extracellular product concentrations. Both transporters from A. terreus complemented their corresponding U. maydis knockouts in mediating itaconate production. Surprisingly, complementation with At_MfsA from A. terreus led to a partial switch from itaconate to (S)-2-hydroxyparaconate secretion. Apparently, the export protein from A. terreus has a higher affinity for (S)-2-hydroxyparaconate than for itaconate, even though this species is classically regarded as an itaconate producer. Complementation with At_MttA increased itaconate production by 2.3-fold compared to complementation with Um_Mtt1, indicating that the mitochondrial carrier from A. terreus supports a higher metabolic flux of itaconic acid precursors than its U. maydis counterpart. The biochemical implications of these differences are discussed in the context of the biotechnological application in U. maydis and A. terreus for the production of itaconate and (S)-2-hydroxyparaconate.

Engineering the morphology and metabolism of pH tolerant Ustilago cynodontis for efficient itaconic acid production.

Besides Aspergillus terreus and Ustilago maydis, Ustilago cynodontis is also known as a natural itaconate producer. U. cynodontis was reported as one of the best itaconate producing species in the family of the Ustilaginaceae, featuring a relatively high pH tolerance in comparison to other smut fungi. However, in contrast to U. maydis, it readily displays filamentous growth under sub-optimal growth conditions. In this study, U. cynodontis is established as efficient pH-tolerant itaconic acid producer through a combination of morphological and metabolic engineering. Deletions of the genes ras2, fuz7, and ubc3 abolished the filamentous growth of U. cynodontis, leading to a stable yeast-like growth under a range of stress-inducing conditions. The yeast-like morphology was also maintained in a pulsed fed batch production of 21 g L-1 itaconic acid and 9.3 g L-1 (S)-2-hydroxyparaconate at a pH of 3.8. The genetic and metabolic basis of itaconic acid production in U. cynodontis was characterized through comparative genomics and gene deletion studies. A hyper-producer strain was metabolically engineered using this knowledge resulting in a 6.5-fold improvement of titer.

Process engineering of pH tolerant Ustilago cynodontis for efficient itaconic acid production.

BACKGROUND: Ustilago cynodontis ranks among the relatively unknown itaconate production organisms. In comparison to the well-known and established organisms like Aspergillus terreus and Ustilago maydis, genetic engineering and first optimizations for itaconate production were only recently developed for U. cynodontis, enabling metabolic and morphological engineering of this acid-tolerant organism for efficient itaconate production. These engineered strains were so far mostly characterized in small scale shaken cultures. RESULTS: In pH-controlled fed-batch experiments an optimum pH of 3.6 could be determined for itaconate production in the morphology-engineered U. cynodontis Δfuz7. With U. cynodontis ∆fuz7r ∆cyp3r PetefmttA Pria1ria1, optimized for itaconate production through the deletion of an itaconate oxidase and overexpression of rate-limiting production steps, titers up to 82.9 ± 0.8 g L-1 were reached in a high-density pulsed fed-batch fermentation at this pH. The use of a constant glucose feed controlled by in-line glucose analysis increased the yield in the production phase to 0.61 gITA gGLC-1, which is 84% of the maximum theoretical pathway yield. Productivity could be improved to a maximum of 1.44 g L-1 h-1 and cell recycling was achieved by repeated-batch application. CONCLUSIONS: Here, we characterize engineered U. cynodontis strains in controlled bioreactors and optimize the fermentation process for itaconate production. The results obtained are discussed in a biotechnological context and show the great potential of U. cynodontis as an itaconate producing host.

Metabolic engineering of Pseudomonas taiwanensis VLB120 with minimal genomic modifications for high-yield phenol production.

Aromatic chemicals are important building blocks for the production of a multitude of everyday commodities. Currently, aromatics production relies almost exclusively on petrochemical processes. To achieve sustainability, alternative synthesis methods need to be developed. Here, we strived for an efficient production of phenol, a model aromatic compound of industrial relevance, from renewable carbon sources using the solvent-tolerant biocatalyst Pseudomonas taiwanensis VLB120. First, multiple catabolic routes for the degradation of aromatics and related compounds were inactivated, thereby obtaining the chassis strain P. taiwanensis VLB120Δ5 incapable of growing on 4-hydroxybenzoate (ΔpobA), tyrosine (Δhpd), and quinate (ΔquiC, ΔquiC1, ΔquiC2). In this context, a novel gene contributing to the quinate catabolism was identified (quiC2). Second, we employed a combination of reverse- and forward engineering to increase metabolic flux towards the product, using leads obtained from the analysis of aromatics producing Pseudomonas putida strains previously generated by mutagenesis. Phenol production was enabled by the heterologous expression of a codon-optimized and chromosomally integrated tyrosine phenol-lyase encoding gene from Pantoea agglomerans AJ2985 (PaTPL2). The genomic modification of endogenous genes encoding TrpEP290S, AroF-1P148L, and PheAT310I, and the deletion of pykA improved phenol production 17-fold, while also minimizing the burden caused by plasmids and auxotrophies. The additional overexpression of known bottleneck enzymes (AroGfbr, TyrAfbr) derived from Escherichia coli further enhanced phenol titers. The best producing strain P. taiwanensis VLB120Δ5-TPL36 reached yields of 15.8% and 18.5% (Cmol/Cmol) phenol from glucose and glycerol, respectively, in a mineral medium without addition of complex nutrients. This is the highest yield ever reported for microbially produced phenol.

Engineering Pseudomonas putida KT2440 for efficient ethylene glycol utilization.

Ethylene glycol is used as a raw material in the production of polyethylene terephthalate, in antifreeze, as a gas hydrate inhibitor in pipelines, and for many other industrial applications. It is metabolized by aerobic microbial processes via the highly toxic intermediates glycolaldehyde and glycolate through C2 metabolic pathways. Pseudomonas putida KT2440, which has been engineered for environmental remediation applications given its high toxicity tolerance and broad substrate specificity, is not able to efficiently metabolize ethylene glycol, despite harboring putative genes for this purpose. To further expand the metabolic portfolio of P. putida, we elucidated the metabolic pathway to enable ethylene glycol via systematic overexpression of glyoxylate carboligase (gcl) in combination with other genes. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction demonstrated that all of the four genes in genomic proximity to gcl (hyi, glxR, ttuD, and pykF) are transcribed as an operon. Where the expression of only two genes (gcl and glxR) resulted in growth in ethylene glycol, improved growth and ethylene glycol utilization were observed when the entire gcl operon was expressed. Both glycolaldehyde and glyoxal inhibit growth in concentrations of ethylene glycol above 50 mM. To overcome this bottleneck, the additional overexpression of the glycolate oxidase (glcDEF) operon removes the glycolate bottleneck and minimizes the production of these toxic intermediates, permitting growth in up to 2 M (~124 g/L) and complete consumption of 0.5 M (31 g/L) ethylene glycol in shake flask experiments. In addition, the engineered strain enables conversion of ethylene glycol to medium-chain-length polyhydroxyalkanoates (mcl-PHAs). Overall, this study provides a robust P. putida KT2440 strain for ethylene glycol consumption, which will serve as a foundational strain for further biocatalyst development for applications in the remediation of waste polyester plastics and biomass-derived wastewater streams.

Genetic and biochemical insights into the itaconate pathway of Ustilago maydis enable enhanced production.

The Ustilaginaceae family of smut fungi, especially Ustilago maydis, gained biotechnological interest over the last years, amongst others due to its ability to naturally produce the versatile bio-based building block itaconate. Along with itaconate, U. maydis also produces 2-hydroxyparaconate. The latter was proposed to be derived from itaconate, but the underlying biochemistry and associated genes were thus far unknown. Here, we confirm that 2-hydroxyparaconate is a secondary metabolite of U. maydis and propose an extension of U. maydis' itaconate pathway from itaconate to 2-hydroxyparaconate. This conversion is catalyzed by the P450 monooxygenase Cyp3, encoded by cyp3, a gene, which is adjacent to the itaconate gene cluster of U. maydis. By deletion of cyp3 and simultaneous overexpression of the gene cluster regulator ria1, it was possible to generate an itaconate hyper producer strain, which produced up to 4.5-fold more itaconate in comparison to the wildtype without the by-product 2-hydroxyparaconate. By adjusting culture conditions in controlled pulsed fed-batch fermentations, a product to substrate yield of 67% of the theoretical maximum was achieved. In all, the titer, rate and yield of itaconate produced by U. maydis was considerably increased, thus contributing to the industrial application of this unicellular fungus for the biotechnological production of this valuable biomass derived chemical.