Lipid nanoparticles enhance the efficacy of mRNA and protein subunit vaccines by inducing robust T follicular helper cell and humoral responses.

Adjuvants are critical for improving the quality and magnitude of adaptive immune responses to vaccination. Lipid nanoparticle (LNP)-encapsulated nucleoside-modified mRNA vaccines have shown great efficacy against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), but the mechanism of action of this vaccine platform is not well-characterized. Using influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2 mRNA and protein subunit vaccines, we demonstrated that our LNP formulation has intrinsic adjuvant activity that promotes induction of strong T follicular helper cell, germinal center B cell, long-lived plasma cell, and memory B cell responses that are associated with durable and protective antibodies in mice. Comparative experiments demonstrated that this LNP formulation outperformed a widely used MF59-like adjuvant, AddaVax. The adjuvant activity of the LNP relies on the ionizable lipid component and on IL-6 cytokine induction but not on MyD88- or MAVS-dependent sensing of LNPs. Our study identified LNPs as a versatile adjuvant that enhances the efficacy of traditional and next-generation vaccine platforms.

T-bet+ B cells Dominate the Peritoneal Cavity B Cell Response during Murine Intracellular Bacterial Infection.

T-bet+ B cells have emerged as a major B cell subset associated with both protective immunity and immunopathogenesis. T-bet is a transcription factor associated with the type I adaptive immune response to intracellular pathogens, driving an effector program characterized by the production of IFN-γ. Murine infection with the intracellular bacterium, Ehrlichia muris, generates protective extrafollicular T cell-independent T-bet+ IgM-secreting plasmablasts, as well as T-bet+ IgM memory cells. Although T-bet is a signature transcription factor for this subset, it is dispensable for splenic CD11c+ memory B cell development, but not for class switching to IgG2c. In addition to the T-bet+ plasmablasts found in the spleen, we show that Ab-secreting cells can also be found within the mouse peritoneal cavity; these cells, as well as their CD138- counterparts, also expressed T-bet. A large fraction of the T-bet+ peritoneal B cells detected during early infection were highly proliferative and expressed CXCR3 and CD11b, but, unlike in the spleen, they did not express CD11c. T-bet+ CD11b+ memory B cells were the dominant B cell population in the peritoneal cavity at 30 d postinfection, and although they expressed high levels of T-bet, they did not require B cell-intrinsic T-bet expression for their generation. Our data uncover a niche for T-bet+ B cells within the peritoneal cavity during intracellular bacterial infection, and they identify this site as a reservoir for T-bet+ B cell memory.

The continuing story of T-cell independent antibodies.

The purpose of this article is to review the role of extrafollicular and T-cell independent antibody responses in humoral immunity. We consider two interrelated questions: (a) do T-cell independent antibody responses dominated by IgM and/or IgA play unique functions in immunity and homeostasis; and (b) is it typical for these responses to result in lifelong protection? In addressing these questions, we consider the established advantages of T-cell driven responses including the unique role played by germinal center reactions in these responses, and contrast the processes and outcomes of germinal center-centric responses with germinal center- and T-cell independent antibodies. We suggest that T-independent and other extrafollicular responses contribute substantially to highly stable antibody repertoires in both the serum and the intestine, providing relatively constitutive humoral barriers with the collective dual function of protecting against invading pathogens and regulating the composition of non-pathogenic microbial communities.

Here, There, and Anywhere? Arguments for and against the Physical Plasma Cell Survival Niche.

To maintain Ab titers, individual plasma cells must survive for extended periods, perhaps even for the life of the host. Although it is clear that plasma cell survival requires cell extrinsic signals, the nature and source of these signals remains open for debate. It is commonly postulated that plasma cells only gain access to these signals within specialized regulatory microenvironments, or niches, in the bone marrow or in the gut. In this review we discuss current concepts and information surrounding plasma cell survival niches, and consider two opposing models to explain long-term serologic immunity.

Protocol for improved resolution of plasma cell subpopulations by flow cytometry.

Plasma cells are rare cells that have been notoriously difficult to detect by flow cytometry. New advances have described B220+ CD138+ plasma cells in the bone marrow that are particularly difficult to distinguish between CD138 intermediate B220+ developing B cells. Herein we describe a novel method for detecting plasma cells in the bone marrow using a combination of CD138 and Sca-1 staining.

Cellular Dynamics of Memory B Cell Populations: IgM+ and IgG+ Memory B Cells Persist Indefinitely as Quiescent Cells.

Despite their critical role in long-term immunity, the life span of individual memory B cells remains poorly defined. Using a tetracycline-regulated pulse-chase system, we measured population turnover rates and individual t1/2 of pre-established Ag-induced Ig class-switched and IgM-positive memory B cells over 402 d. Our results indicate that, once established, both IgG-positive and less frequent IgM-positive memory populations are exceptionally stable, with little evidence of attrition or cellular turnover. Indeed, the vast majority of cells in both pools exhibited t1/2 that appear to exceed the life span of the mouse, contrasting dramatically with mature naive B cells. These results indicate that recall Ab responses are mediated by stable pools of extremely long-lived cells, and suggest that Ag-experienced B cells employ remarkably efficient survival mechanisms.

Lasting antibody responses are mediated by a combination of newly formed and established bone marrow plasma cells drawn from clonally distinct precursors.

Current models hold that serum Ab titers are maintained chiefly by long-lived bone marrow (BM) plasma cells (PCs). In this study, we characterize the role of subpopulations of BM PCs in long-term humoral responses to T cell-dependent Ag. Surprisingly, our results indicate that 40-50% of BM PCs are recently formed cells, defined, in part, by rapid steady-state turnover kinetics and secretion of low-affinity IgM Abs. Further, for months after immunization with a hapten-protein conjugate, newly formed Ag-induced, IgM-secreting BM PCs were detected in parallel with longer-lived IgG-secreting cells, suggesting ongoing and parallel input to the BM PC pool from two distinct pools of activated B cells. Consistent with this interpretation, IgM and IgG Abs secreted by cells within distinct PC subsets exhibited distinct L chain usage. We conclude that long-term Ab responses are maintained by a dynamic BM PC pool composed of both recently formed and long-lived PCs drawn from clonally disparate precursors.

AID expression in peripheral blood of children living in a malaria holoendemic region is associated with changes in B cell subsets and Epstein-Barr virus.

The development of endemic Burkitt's lymphoma (eBL) is closely associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection and holoendemic malaria infections. The role of EBV in the development of malignancy has been studied in depth, but there is still little known about the mechanisms by which malaria affects Burkitt's lymphomagenesis. Activation induced cytidine deaminase (AID) expression is necessary for the introduction of c-myc translocations that are characteristic of BL, but a link between AID and EBV or malaria is unclear. To determine whether frequency of malaria exposure leads to increased AID expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) we examined two cohorts of children in western Kenya with endemic and sporadic malaria transmission dynamics. High frequency of malaria exposure led to increased expression of AID, which coincided with decreases in the IgM(+) memory B cells. In the children from the malaria endemic region, the presence of a detectible EBV viral load was associated with higher AID expression compared to children with undetectable EBV, but this effect was not seen in children with sporadic exposure to malaria. This study demonstrates that intensity of malaria transmission correlates with AID expression levels in the presence of EBV suggesting that malaria and EBV infection have a synergistic effect on the development of c-myc translocations and BL.

Acute Plasmodium chabaudi infection dampens humoral responses to a secondary T-dependent antigen but enhances responses to a secondary T-independent antigen.

High rates of coinfection occur in malaria endemic regions, leading to more severe disease outcomes. Understanding how coinfecting pathogens influence the immune system is important in the development of treatment strategies that reduce morbidity and mortality. Using the Plasmodium chabaudi mouse model of malaria and immunization with model Ags that are either T-dependent (4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl [NP]-OVA) or T-independent (NP-Ficoll), we analyzed the effects of acute malaria on the development of humoral immunity to secondary Ags. Total Ig and IgG1 NP-specific Ab responses to NP-OVA were significantly decreased in the P. chabaudi-infected group compared with the uninfected group, whereas NP-specific IgG2c Ab was significantly increased in the P. chabaudi-infected group. In contrast, following injection with T-independent NP-Ficoll, the P. chabaudi-infected group had significantly increased NP-specific total Ig, IgM, and IgG2c Ab titers compared with controls. Treatment with anti-IFN-γ led to an abrogation of the NP-specific IgG2c Ab induced by P. chabaudi infection but did not affect other NP-specific Ab isotypes or titers. IFN-γ depletion also increased the percentage of plasma cells in both P. chabaudi-infected and uninfected groups but decreased the percentage of B cells with a germinal center (GC) phenotype. Using immunofluorescent microscopy, we were able to detect NP(+) GCs in the spleens of noninfected mice, but there were no detectible NP(+) GCs in mice infected with P. chabaudi. These data suggest that during P. chabaudi infection, there is a shift toward an extrafollicular Ab response that could be responsible for decreased Ab responses to secondary T-dependent Ags.

Unveiling cytokine charge disparity as a potential mechanism for immune regulation.

Cytokines are small signaling proteins that regulate the immune responses to infection and tissue damage. Surface charges of cytokines determine their in vivo fate in immune regulation, e.g., half-life and distribution. The overall negative charges in the extracellular microenvironment and the acidosis during inflammation and infection may differentially impact cytokines with different surface charges for fine-tuned immune regulation via controlling tissue residential properties. However, the trend and role of cytokine surface charges has yet to be elucidated in the literature. Interestingly, we have observed that most pro-inflammatory cytokines have a negative charge, while most anti-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines have a positive charge. In this review, we extensively examined the surface charges of all cytokines and chemokines, summarized the pharmacokinetics and tissue adhesion of major cytokines, and analyzed the link of surface charge with cytokine biodistribution, activation, and function in immune regulation. Additionally, we identified that the general trend of charge disparity between pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines represents a unique opportunity to develop precise immune modulation approaches, which can be applied to many inflammation-associated diseases including solid tumors, chronic wounds, infection, and sepsis.

Gut commensals require Peyer's patches to induce protective systemic IgA responses.

Gut educated IgA secreting plasma cells that disseminate beyond the mucosa and into systemic tissues have been described as providing beneficial effects from disease in several contexts. Several bacteria have been implicated in the induction of systemic IgA, however the mechanisms that result in differential levels of induction by each bacterial species are still unknown. Here we show, the commensal bacteria, Bacteroides fragilis (Bf), is an efficient inducer of systemic IgA responses. The ability of Bf to induce the production of bone marrow IgA plasma cells and high levels of serum IgA relied on high levels of gut colonization in a dose-dependent manner. Colonization induced Bf-specific IgA responses were severely diminished in the absence of Peyer's patches, but not the murine cecal patch. Colonization of mice with Bf, a natural human commensal, resulted in few changes within the microbiome and the host transcriptional profile in the gut, suggesting a commensal relationship with the host. Bf colonization did benefit the mice by inducing systemic IgA that led to increased protection in a bowel perforation model resulting in lower peritoneal abscess formation. These findings demonstrate a critical role for bacterial colonization and Peyer's patches in the induction of robust systemic IgA responses that confer protection from bacterial dissemination outside of the gut.

Impact of intestinal microenvironments in obesity and bariatric surgery on shaping macrophages.

Obesity is associated with alterations in tissue composition, systemic cellular metabolism, and low-grade chronic inflammation. Macrophages are heterogenous innate immune cells ubiquitously localized throughout the body and are key components of tissue homeostasis, inflammation, wound healing, and various disease states. Macrophages are highly plastic and can switch their phenotypic polarization and change function in response to their local environments. Here, we discuss how obesity alters the intestinal microenvironment and potential key factors that can influence intestinal macrophages as well as macrophages in other organs, including adipose tissue and hematopoietic organs. As bariatric surgery can induce metabolic adaptation systemically, we discuss the potential mechanisms through which bariatric surgery reshapes macrophages in obesity.

Switched and unswitched memory B cells detected during SARS-CoV-2 convalescence correlate with limited symptom duration.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of the pandemic human respiratory illness COVID-19, is a global health emergency. While severe acute disease has been linked to an expansion of antibody-secreting plasmablasts, we sought to identify B cell responses that correlated with positive clinical outcomes in convalescent patients. We characterized the peripheral blood B cell immunophenotype and plasma antibody responses in 40 recovered non-hospitalized COVID-19 subjects that were enrolled as donors in a convalescent plasma treatment study. We observed a significant negative correlation between the frequency of peripheral blood memory B cells and the duration of symptoms for convalescent subjects. Memory B cell subsets in convalescent subjects were composed of classical CD24+ class-switched memory B cells, but also activated CD24-negative and natural unswitched CD27+ IgD+ IgM+ subsets. Memory B cell frequency was significantly correlated with both IgG1 and IgM responses to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein receptor binding domain (RBD) in most seropositive subjects. IgM+ memory, but not switched memory, directly correlated with virus-specific antibody responses, and remained stable over 3 months. Our findings suggest that the frequency of memory B cells is a critical indicator of disease resolution, and that IgM+ memory B cells may play an important role in SARS-CoV-2 immunity.

IgA Plasma Cells Are Long-Lived Residents of Gut and Bone Marrow That Express Isotype- and Tissue-Specific Gene Expression Patterns.

Antibody secreting plasma cells are made in response to a variety of pathogenic and commensal microbes. While all plasma cells express a core gene transcription program that allows them to secrete large quantities of immunoglobulin, unique transcriptional profiles are linked to plasma cells expressing different antibody isotypes. IgA expressing plasma cells are generally thought of as short-lived in mucosal tissues and they have been understudied in systemic sites like the bone marrow. We find that IgA+ plasma cells in both the small intestine lamina propria and the bone marrow are long-lived and transcriptionally related compared to IgG and IgM expressing bone marrow plasma cells. IgA+ plasma cells show signs of shared clonality between the gut and bone marrow, but they do not recirculate at a significant rate and are found within bone marrow plasma cells niches. These data suggest that systemic and mucosal IgA+ plasma cells are from a common source, but they do not migrate between tissues. However, comparison of the plasma cells from the small intestine lamina propria to the bone marrow demonstrate a tissue specific gene transcription program. Understanding how these tissue specific gene networks are regulated in plasma cells could lead to increased understanding of the induction of mucosal versus systemic antibody responses and improve vaccine design.

Switched and unswitched memory B cells detected during SARS-CoV-2 convalescence correlate with limited symptom duration.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of the pandemic human respiratory illness COVID-19, is a global health emergency. While severe acute disease has been linked to an expansion of antibody-secreting plasmablasts, we sought to identify B cell responses that correlated with positive clinical outcomes in convalescent patients. We characterized the peripheral blood B cell immunophenotype and plasma antibody responses in 40 recovered non-hospitalized COVID-19 subjects that were enrolled as donors in a convalescent plasma treatment study. We observed a significant negative correlation between the frequency of peripheral blood memory B cells and the duration of symptoms for convalescent subjects. Memory B cell subsets in convalescent subjects were composed of classical CD24+ class-switched memory B cells, but also activated CD24-negative and natural unswitched CD27+ IgD+ IgM+ subsets. Memory B cell frequency was significantly correlated with both IgG1 and IgM responses to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein receptor binding domain (RBD). IgM+ memory, but not switched memory, directly correlated with virus-specific antibody responses, and remained stable over time. Our findings suggest that the frequency of memory B cells is a critical indicator of disease resolution, and that IgM+ memory B cells play an important role in SARS-CoV-2 immunity.

Induction of IL-33 expression and activity in central nervous system glia.

IL-33 is a novel member of the IL-1 cytokine family and a potent inducer of type 2 immunity, as mast cells and Th2 CD4+ T cells respond to IL-33 with the induction of type 2 cytokines such as IL-13. IL-33 mRNA levels are extremely high in the CNS, and CNS glia possess both subunits of the IL-33R, yet whether IL-33 is produced by and affects CNS glia has not been studied. Here, we demonstrate that pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) significantly increase IL-33 mRNA and protein expression in CNS glia. Interestingly, IL-33 was localized to the nucleus of astrocytes. Further, CNS glial and astrocyte-enriched cultures treated with a PAMP followed by an ATP pulse had significantly higher levels of supernatant IL-1beta and IL-33 than cultures receiving any single treatment (PAMP or ATP). Supernatants from PAMP + ATP-treated glia induced the secretion of IL-6, IL-13, and MCP-1 from the MC/9 mast cell line in a manner similar to exogenous recombinant IL-33. Further, IL-33 levels and activity were increased in the brains of mice infected with the neurotropic virus Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus. IL-33 also had direct effects on CNS glia, as IL-33 induced various innate immune effectors in CNS glia, and this induction was greatly amplified by IL-33-stimulated mast cells. In conclusion, these results implicate IL-33-producing astrocytes as a potentially critical regulator of innate immune responses in the CNS.

Changes in Tonsil B Cell Phenotypes and EBV Receptor Expression in Children Under 5-Years-Old.

BACKGROUND: Palatine tonsils are principally B cell organs that are the initial line of defense against many oral pathogens, as well as the site of infection for others. While the size of palatine tonsils changes greatly in the first five years of life, the cellular changes during this period are not well studied. Epstein Barr virus (EBV) is a common orally transmitted virus that infects tonsillar B cells. Naïve B cells are thought to be the target of primary infection with EBV in vivo, suggesting that they are targeted by the virus. EBV enters B cells through CD21, but studies of older children and adults have not shown differences in surface CD21 between naïve B cells and other tonsil B cell populations. METHODS: In this study, we used an 11-color flow cytometry panel to detail the changes in B cell subpopulations in human tonsils over the first five years of life from 33 healthy US children. RESULTS: We provide reference ranges for tonsil B cell subpopulations over this age range. We show that the frequency of naïve tonsil B cells decreases over the early years of life, and that naïve B cells expressed higher surface levels of CD21 relative to other tonsil B cell populations. CONCLUSIONS: We show that young children have a higher frequency of naïve tonsil B cells, and importantly that these cells express increased surface EBV receptor, suggesting that young children have a larger pool of cells that can be infected by the virus. © 2017 International Clinical Cytometry Society.

Commensal Microbes Induce Serum IgA Responses that Protect against Polymicrobial Sepsis.

Serum immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibodies are readily detected in mice and people, but the mechanisms underlying the induction of serum IgA and its role in host protection remain uncertain. We report that select commensal bacteria induce several facets of systemic IgA-mediated immunity. Exposing conventional mice to a unique but natural microflora that included several members of the Proteobacteria phylum led to T cell-dependent increases in serum IgA levels and the induction of large numbers of IgA-secreting plasma cells in the bone marrow. The resulting serum IgA bound to a restricted collection of bacterial taxa, and antigen-specific serum IgA antibodies were readily induced after intestinal colonization with the commensal bacterium Helicobacter muridarum. Finally, movement to a Proteobacteria-rich microbiota led to serum IgA-mediated resistance to polymicrobial sepsis. We conclude that commensal microbes overtly influence the serum IgA repertoire, resulting in constitutive protection against bacterial sepsis.

Plasmodium chabaudi infection induces AID expression in transitional and marginal zone B cells.

INTRODUCTION: Endemic Burkitt's lymphoma (eBL) is associated with Epstein-Barr virus and repeated malaria infections. A defining feature of eBL is the translocation of the c-myc oncogene to the control of the immunoglobulin promoter. Activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) has been shown to be critical for this translocation. Malaria infection induces AID in germinal center B cells, but whether malaria infection more broadly affects AID activation in extrafollicular B cells is unknown. METHODS: We either stimulated purified B cells from AID-green fluorescence protein (GFP) reporter mice or infected AID-GFP mice with Plasmodium chabaudi, AID fluorescence was monitored in B cell subsets by flow cytometry. RESULTS: In vitro analysis of B cells from these mice revealed that CpG (a Toll-like receptor 9 ligand) was a potent inducer of AID in both mature and immature B cell subsets. Infection of AID-GFP mice with Plasmodium chabaudi demonstrated that AID expression occurs in transitional and marginal zone B cells during acute malaria infection. Transitional B cells were also capable of differentiating into antibody secreting cells when stimulated in vitro with CpG when isolated from a P. chabaudi-infected mouse. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that P. chabaudi is capable of inducing AID expression in B cell subsets that do not participate in the germinal center reaction, suggesting an alternative role for malaria in the etiology of eBL.