ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Poxviridae 2023.

Poxviridae is a family of enveloped, brick-shaped or ovoid viruses. The genome is a linear molecule of dsDNA (128-375 kbp) with covalently closed ends. The family includes the sub-families Entomopoxvirinae, whose members have been found in four orders of insects, and Chordopoxvirinae, whose members are found in mammals, birds, reptiles and fish. Poxviruses are important pathogens in various animals, including humans, and typically result in the formation of lesions, skin nodules, or disseminated rash. Infections can be fatal. This is a summary of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) Report on the family Poxviridae, which is available at ictv.global/report/poxviridae.

Macrocystis pyrifera Lipids Reduce Cytokine-Induced Pro-Inflammatory Signalling and Barrier Dysfunction in Human Keratinocyte Models.

Atopic dermatitis is a chronic condition where epidermal barrier dysfunction and cytokine production by infiltrating immune cells exacerbate skin inflammation and damage. A total lipid extract from Macrocystis pyrifera, a brown seaweed, was previously reported to suppress inflammatory responses in monocytes. Here, treatment of human HaCaT keratinocytes with M. pyrifera lipids inhibited tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α induced TNF receptor-associated factor 2 and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 protein production. HaCaT cells stimulated with TNF-α, interleukin (IL)-4, and IL-13 showed loss of claudin-1 tight junctions, but little improvement was observed following lipid pre-treatment. Three-dimensional cultures of HaCaT cells differentiated at the air-liquid interface showed increased MCP-1 production, loss of claudin-1 tight junctions, and trans-epidermal leakage with TNF-α, IL-4, and IL-13 stimulation, with all parameters reduced by lipid pre-treatment. These findings suggest that M. pyrifera lipids have anti-inflammatory and barrier-protective effects on keratinocytes, which may be beneficial for the treatment of atopic dermatitis or other skin conditions.

Exploitation of receptor tyrosine kinases by viral-encoded growth factors.

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are essential components of cell communication pathways utilized from the embryonic to adult stages of life. These transmembrane receptors bind polypeptide ligands, such as growth factors, inducing signalling cascades that control cellular processes such as proliferation, survival, differentiation, motility and inflammation. Many viruses have acquired homologs of growth factors encoded by the hosts that they infect. Production of growth factors during infection allows viruses to exploit RTKs for entry and replication in cells, as well as for host and environmental dissemination. This review describes the genetic diversity amongst virus-derived growth factors and the mechanisms by which RTK exploitation enhances virus survival, then highlights how viral ligands can be used to further understanding of RTK signalling and function during embryogenesis, homeostasis and disease scenarios.

Short-term treatment of equine wounds with orf virus IL-10 and VEGF-E dampens inflammation and promotes repair processes without accelerating closure.

Healing is delayed in limb wounds relative to body wounds of horses, partly because of sustained inflammation and inefficient angiogenesis. In laboratory animals, proteins derived from orf virus modulate these processes and enhance healing. We aimed to compare immune cell trafficking and the inflammatory, vascular, and epidermal responses in body and limb wounds of horses and then to investigate the impact of orf virus interleukin-10 and vascular endothelial growth factor-E on these processes. Standardized excisional wounds were created on the body and forelimb of horses and their progression monitored macroscopically until healed. Tissue samples were harvested to measure the expression of genes regulating inflammation and repair (quantitative polymerase chain reaction) and to observe epithelialization (histology), innate immune cell infiltration, and angiogenesis (immunofluorescence). Delayed healing of limb wounds was characterized by intensified and extended pro-inflammatory signaling and exacerbated innate immune response, concomitant with the absence of anti-inflammatory eIL-10. Blood vessels were initially more permeable and then matured belatedly, concomitant with retarded production of angiogenic factors. Epithelial coverage was achieved belatedly in limb wounds. Viral proteins were administered to wounds of one body and one limb site/horse at days 1-3, while wounds at matching sites served as controls. Treatment dampened pro-inflammatory gene expression and the innate immune response in all wounds. It also improved angiogenic gene expression, but primarily in body wounds, where it altered blood vessel density and myofibroblast persistence. Moreover, the viral proteins increased epithelialization of all wounds. The short-term viral protein therapy did not, however, improve the healing rate of wounds in either location, likely due to suboptimal dosing. In conclusion, we have further detailed the processes contributing to protracted healing in limb wounds of horses and shown that short-term administration of viral proteins exerts several promising though transient effects that, if optimized, may positively influence healing.

Orf virus interleukin-10 and vascular endothelial growth factor-E modulate gene expression in cultured equine dermal fibroblasts.

BACKGROUND: Wounds in horses often exhibit sustained inflammation and inefficient vascularization, leading to excessive fibrosis and clinical complications such as "proud flesh". Orf virus-derived proteins, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-E and interleukin (ovIL)-10, enhance angiogenesis and control inflammation and fibrosis in skin wounds of laboratory animals. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: The study aimed to determine if equine dermal cells respond to VEGF-E and ovIL-10. Equine dermal cells are expected to express VEGF and IL-10 receptors, so viral protein treatment is likely to alter cellular gene expression and behaviour in a manner conducive to healing. ANIMALS: Skin samples were harvested from the lateral thoracic wall of two healthy thoroughbred horses. METHODS: Equine dermal cells were isolated using a skin explant method and their phenotype assessed by immunofluorescence. Cells were treated with recombinant proteins, with or without inflammatory stimuli. Gene expression was examined using standard and quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR. Cell behaviour was evaluated in a scratch assay. RESULTS: Cultured cells were half vimentin(+ve) fibroblasts and half alpha smooth muscle actin(+ve) and vimentin(+ve) myofibroblasts. VEGF-E increased basal expression of IL-10 mRNA, whereas VEGF-A and collagenase-1 mRNA expression was increased by ovIL-10. In cells exposed to inflammatory stimulus, both treatments dampened tumour necrosis factor mRNA expression, and ovIL-10 exacerbated expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein. Neither viral protein influenced cell migration greatly. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: This study shows that VEGF-E and ovIL-10 are active on equine dermal cells and exert anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic effects that may enhance skin wound healing in horses.

Effect of a broad-specificity chemokine-binding protein on brain leukocyte infiltration and infarct development.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Expression of numerous chemokine-related genes is increased in the brain after ischemic stroke. Here, we tested whether post-stroke administration of a chemokine-binding protein (CBP), derived from the parapoxvirus bovine papular stomatitis virus, might reduce infiltration of leukocytes into the brain and consequently limit infarct development. METHODS: The binding spectrum of the CBP was evaluated in chemokine ELISAs, and binding affinity was determined using surface plasmon resonance. Focal stroke was induced in C57Bl/6 mice by middle cerebral artery occlusion for 1 hour followed by reperfusion for 23 or 47 hours. Mice were treated intravenously with either bovine serum albumin (10 µg) or CBP (10 µg) at the commencement of reperfusion. At 24 or 48 hours, we assessed plasma levels of the chemokines CCL2/MCP-1 and CXCL2/MIP-2, as well as neurological deficit, brain leukocyte infiltration, and infarct volume. RESULTS: The CBP interacted with a broad spectrum of CC, CXC, and XC chemokines and bound CCL2/MCP-1 and CXCL2/MIP-2 with high affinity (pM range). Stroke markedly increased plasma levels of CCL2/MCP-1 and CXCL2/MIP-2, as well as numbers of microglia and infiltrating leukocytes in the brain. Increases in plasma chemokines were blocked in mice treated with CBP, in which there was reduced neurological deficit, fewer brain-infiltrating leukocytes, and ≈50% smaller infarcts at 24 hours compared with bovine serum albumin-treated mice. However, CBP treatment was no longer protective at 48 hours. CONCLUSIONS: Post-stroke administration of CBP can reduce plasma chemokine levels in association with temporary atten uation of brain inflammation and infarct volume development.

Orf virus IL-10 accelerates wound healing while limiting inflammation and scarring.

Interleukin (IL)-10 plays a critical role in controlling wound inflammation and scar formation. Orf virus, a zoonotic parapoxvirus, induces proliferative skin lesions that resolve with minimal scarring. Orf virus encodes a range of factors that subvert the host's response to infection, including a homolog of IL-10. This study investigated, using a murine full-thickness wound model, whether purified orf virus IL-10 (ovIL-10) can regulate skin repair and scarring. Repeat injections of ovIL-10 into wounded skin accelerated wound closure. Histological analyses of wound sections revealed that treatment with ovIL-10 accelerated wound reepithelialization, granulation tissue coverage of the wound bed, and improved wound revascularization. In addition, wounds treated with ovIL-10 showed a reduction in macrophage infiltration, myofibroblast differentiation, and wound contraction. Treatment of wounds with ovIL-10 also resulted in a reduction in visible scarring that was consistent with the extent of scar tissue formed. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis confirmed that ovIL-10 reduced the expression of key mediators of inflammation and granulation tissue formation. These findings show that ovIL-10, like mammalian IL-10, limits inflammation and scar tissue formation and reveal a new role for both mammalian and viral IL-10 in mediating tissue repair.

Isolation and characterisation of two epithelial-like cell lines from the gills of Chrysophrys auratus (Australasian snapper) and Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Chinook salmon) and their use in aquatic toxicology.

In vitro gill models are becoming increasingly important in aquatic toxicology, yet the fish gill invitrome is underrepresented, encompassing approximately 0.1% of extant species. Here, we describe the establishment and characterisation of two gill-derived, epithelial-like cell lines isolated from fish species of significant importance to New Zealand: Chrysophrys auratus (Australasian snapper) and Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Chinook salmon). Designated CAgill1PFR (Chrysophrys auratus, gill 1, Plant & Food Research) and OTgill1PFR (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, gill 1, Plant & Food Research), these cell lines have each been passaged greater than each 70 times over several years and are considered spontaneously immortalised. Both cell lines required serum for growth and exhibited differential responses to basal media formulations. CAgill1PFR was sensitive to low temperatures (4 °C) but replicated at high temperatures (30 °C), whereas OTgill1PFR was sensitive to high temperatures but remained viable at low temperatures, mirroring the natural environment of their host species. Immunostaining revealed expression of epithelial cell markers cytokeratin and E-cadherin, alongside positivity for the mesenchymal cell marker, vimentin. CAgill1PFR was more sensitive to the environmental toxin 3,4 dichloroaniline than OTgill1PFR through measurements of metabolic activity, membrane integrity, and lysosomal function. Furthermore, CAgill1PFR produced less CYP1A activity, indicative of ongoing biotransformation processes, in response to beta-naphthoflavone than OTgill1PFR. These cell lines expand the toolbox of resources and emphasise the need for species-specific aquatic toxicology research.

The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-E encoded by orf virus regulates keratinocyte proliferation and migration and promotes epidermal regeneration.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A, a key regulator of cutaneous blood vessel formation, appears to have an additional role during wound healing, enhancing re-epithelialization. Orf virus, a zoonotic parapoxvirus, induces proliferative skin lesions that initiate in wounds and are characterized by extensive blood vessel formation, epidermal hyperplasia and rete ridge formation. The vascular changes beneath the lesion are largely due to viral-expressed VEGF-E. This study investigated using mouse skin models whether VEGF-E can induce epidermal changes such as that seen in the viral lesion. Injection of VEGF-E into normal skin increased the number of endothelial cells and blood vessels within the dermis and increased epidermal thickening and keratinocyte number. Injection of VEGF-E into wounded skin, which more closely mimics orf virus lesions, increased neo-epidermal thickness and area, promoted rete ridge formation, and enhanced wound re-epithelialization. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis showed that VEGF-E did not induce expression of epidermal-specific growth factors within the wound, but did increase matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9 expression. In cell-based assays, VEGF-E induced keratinocyte migration and proliferation, responses that were inhibited by a neutralizing antibody against VEGF receptor (VEGFR)-2. These findings demonstrate that VEGF-E, both directly and indirectly, regulates keratinocyte function, thereby promoting epidermal regeneration.

The chemokine-binding protein encoded by the poxvirus orf virus inhibits recruitment of dendritic cells to sites of skin inflammation and migration to peripheral lymph nodes.

Orf virus (ORFV) is a zoonotic parapoxvirus that induces acute pustular skin lesions in sheep and humans. ORFV can reinfect its host and the discovery of several secreted immune modulatory factors that include a chemokine-binding protein (CBP) may explain this phenomenon. Dendritic cells (DC) are professional antigen presenting cells that induce adaptive immunity and their recruitment to sites of infection in skin and migration to peripheral lymph nodes is critically dependent on inflammatory and constitutive chemokine gradients respectively. Here we examined whether ORFV-CBP could disable these gradients using mouse models. Previously we established that ORFV-CBP bound murine inflammatory chemokines with high affinity and here we show that this binding spectrum extends to constitutive chemokines CCL19 and CCL21. Using cell-based chemotaxis assays, ORFV-CBP inhibited the movement of both immature and mature DC in response to these inflammatory and constitutive chemokines respectively. Moreover in C57BL/6 mice, intradermally injected CBP potently inhibited the recruitment of blood-derived DC to lipopolysaccharide-induced sites of skin inflammation and inhibited the migration of ex vivo CpG-activated DC to inguinal lymph nodes. Finally we showed that ORFV-CBP completely inhibited T responsiveness in the inguinal lymph nodes using intradermally injected DC pulsed with ovalbumin peptide and transfused transgenic T cells.

Murine Model of Thermal Burn Injury for Evaluating Protein Therapeutics Derived from Viruses.

In vivo wound healing models are predictive preclinical tests for therapeutics that enhance skin repair or limit scarring. Large animals, such as swine, heal in a manner similar to humans, but testing is impractical and expensive. Experiments in mice are more economic, but may be less translatable as this species heals primarily through contraction, not by the processes of epithelialization and granulation tissue formation as seen in human wounds. Here, we describe a murine model of thermal burn injury that closely mimics human healing, resulting in a large, hypertrophic-like scar. This practical, reproducible model is ideal for testing promising wound-healing therapies, such as virus-derived growth factors and immune-modulatory proteins.

Strategies for inclusion of growth factors into 3D printed bone grafts.

There remains a critical need to develop new technologies and materials that can meet the demands of treating large bone defects. The advancement of 3-dimensional (3D) printing technologies has allowed the creation of personalized and customized bone grafts, with specific control in both macro- and micro-architecture, and desired mechanical properties. Nevertheless, the biomaterials used for the production of these bone grafts often possess poor biological properties. The incorporation of growth factors (GFs), which are the natural orchestrators of the physiological healing process, into 3D printed bone grafts, represents a promising strategy to achieve the bioactivity required to enhance bone regeneration. In this review, the possible strategies used to incorporate GFs to 3D printed constructs are presented with a specific focus on bone regeneration. In particular, the strengths and limitations of different methods, such as physical and chemical cross-linking, which are currently used to incorporate GFs to the engineered constructs are critically reviewed. Different strategies used to present one or more GFs to achieve simultaneous angiogenesis and vasculogenesis for enhanced bone regeneration are also covered in this review. In addition, the possibility of combining several manufacturing approaches to fabricate hybrid constructs, which better mimic the complexity of biological niches, is presented. Finally, the clinical relevance of these approaches and the future steps that should be taken are discussed.

Vascular endothelial growth factor encoded by Parapoxviruses can regulate metabolism and survival of triple negative breast cancer cells.

Dysbiotic microbiomes are linked to many pathological outcomes including different metabolic disorders like diabetes, atherosclerosis and even cancer. Breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer associated death in women, and triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive type with major challenges for intervention. Previous reports suggested that Parapoxvirus signatures are one of the predominant dysbiotic viral signatures in TNBC. These viruses encode several genes that are homologs of human genes. In this study, we show that the VEGF homolog encoded by Parapoxviruses, can induce cell proliferation, and alter metabolism of breast cancer and normal breast cells, through alteration of MAPK-ERK and PI3K-AKT signaling. In addition, the activity of the transcription factor FoxO1 was altered by viral-encoded VEGF through activation of the PI3K-AKT pathway, leading to reprogramming of cellular metabolic gene expression. Therefore, this study provides new insights into the function of viral-encoded VEGFs, which promoted the growth of the breast cancer cells and imparted proliferative phenotype with altered metabolism in normal breast cells.

Anti-fibrotic Actions of Equine Interleukin-10 on Transforming Growth Factor-Beta1-Stimulated Dermal Fibroblasts Isolated From Limbs of Horses.

Fibroproliferative disorders occur in both humans and horses following skin injury. In horses, wound healing on the limb is often complicated by the formation of fibroproliferative exuberant granulation tissue, characterized by persistent expression of pro-fibrotic transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-ß1) and deficient expression of anti-inflammatory interleukin-10 (IL-10). IL-10 has been shown to directly modulate fibrotic gene expression in human fibroblasts, so we hypothesized that equine IL-10 (eIL-10) may exert similar anti-fibrotic effects on equine dermal fibroblasts. Cell-lines were created from the limb skin of six individual horses. Recombinant eIL-10 was produced and purified, and its effects on the cells investigated in the presence and absence of equine TGF-ß1 (eTGF-ß1). Myofibroblast differentiation and collagen production were examined using immunofluorescent cytometry, cell contractility in a collagen gel assay, and fibrotic gene expression using quantitative PCR. In response to eTGF-ß1, fibroblasts increased in contractility and expression of alpha-smooth muscle actin, collagen types 1 and 3, and matrix metalloproteinase 1, 2, and 9. Equine IL-10 limited cell contractility and production of alpha-smooth muscle actin and type 3 collagen, and decreased mRNA levels of eCol3a1 and eMMP9, while increasing that of eMMP1. Opposing effects on eTGF-ßR3 and eIL-10R1 gene expression were also observed, with mRNA levels decreasing following eTGF-ß1 treatment, and increasing with eIL-10 treatment. These findings indicate that eIL-10 limits the pro-fibrotic effects of eTGF-ß1, potentially through the modulation of fibrotic and receptor gene expression. Further investigations are warranted to assess the therapeutic utility of eIL-10 in the treatment of exuberant granulation tissue.

Orf Virus IL-10 and VEGF-E Act Synergistically to Enhance Healing of Cutaneous Wounds in Mice.

Orf virus (OV) is a zoonotic parapoxvirus that causes highly proliferative skin lesions which resolve with minimal inflammation and scarring. OV encodes two immunomodulators, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-E and interleukin-10 (ovIL-10), which individually modulate skin repair and inflammation. This study examined the effects of the VEGF-E and ovIL-10 combination on healing processes in a murine wound model. Treatments with viral proteins, individually and in combination, were compared to a mammalian VEGF-A and IL-10 combination. Wound biopsies were harvested to measure re-epithelialisation and scarring (histology), inflammation, fibrosis and angiogenesis (immunofluorescence), and gene expression (quantitative polymerase chain reaction). VEGF-E and ovIL-10 showed additive effects on wound closure and re-epithelialisation, and suppressed M1 macrophage and myofibroblast infiltration, while allowing M2 macrophage recruitment. The viral combination also increased endothelial cell density and pericyte coverage, and improved collagen deposition while reducing the scar area. The mammalian combination showed equivalent effects on wound closure, re-epithelialisation and fibrosis, but did not promote blood vessel stabilisation or collagen remodeling. The combination treatments also differentially altered the expression of transforming growth factor beta isoforms, Tgfß1 and Tgfß3. These findings show that the OV proteins synergistically enhance skin repair, and act in a complimentary fashion to improve scar quality.

Human Papillomavirus E6/E7 Expression in Preeclampsia-Affected Placentae.

Whether HPV is causative of pregnancy complications is uncertain. E6 and E7 affect functions underling preeclampsia (PET) in cultured trophoblasts, but whether E6 and E7 is produced in the placenta is uncertain. Here, we investigated whether E6/E7 was expressed in the placentae from pregnancies with PET, other pregnancy complications (fetal growth restriction (FGR) and diabetes mellitus), and uncomplicated pregnancies. Placental tissues collected from two geographical locations were subjected to RNAscope analyses of high- and low- risk E6/E7, and individual HPV types identified using an HPV array. High-risk E6/E7 expression was increased in both PET cohorts, (81% and 86% of patients positive for high-risk HPV DNA compared to 13% of control patients). Various HPV types were identified. Although HPV 18 was the most frequent in all cohorts, the majority of individuals had multiple HPV types (55% of the PET compared to 25% of the control cohort). Further evidence that E6 and E7 is present early when placental pathology underlying preeclampsia is established, is provided with the finding of high-risk E6/E7 in the first-trimester placenta anchoring trophoblast. In conclusion, E6/E7 expression and multiple HPV types were frequent in placentae from preeclampsia-complicated pregnancies.

Visible light mediated PVA-tyramine hydrogels for covalent incorporation and tailorable release of functional growth factors.

The translation of growth factors (GFs) into clinical applications is limited by their low stability in physiological environments. Controlled GF delivery through biomaterial vehicles provides protection from proteases, targeted delivery, and longer term release profiles. However, current methods used to incorporate GFs into biomaterials still present limitations. While direct adsorption and encapsulation result in burst release, covalent incorporation provides a tailorable release profile but generally requires more complicated processes and chemical modification of the GFs. Bioaffinity methods provide long-term release profiles but fail in their specificity, resulting in GF-dependent applicability and release profiles. In the present study, we introduce tyraminated poly-vinyl-alcohol (PVA-Tyr) as a GF-delivery vehicle that can covalently incorporate native GFs through a photo-initiated cross-linking process via formation of bi-phenol bonds. Mass loss and release studies revealed that protein-loaded PVA-Tyr hydrogels had highly tailorable degradation times from 7 to 92 days, during which the covalently incorporated proteins were released in a linear fashion. The incorporation of bovine serum albumin (BSA), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), or brain-derived growth factor (BDNF) resulted in similar incorporation efficiencies and release profiles, demonstrating the low specificity and versatility of the system. Furthermore, functional studies demonstrated that VEGF, bFGF and BDNF released from the PVA-Tyr hydrogels retained the ability to increase the metabolic activity, migration, and 3D vessel formation of endothelial cells and mesenchymal stem cells. Taken together, this demonstrates that PVA-Tyr shows high potential as a highly tailorable GF delivery tool for a range of different regenerative medicine applications.

Chemokine-Binding Proteins Encoded by Parapoxvirus of Red Deer of New Zealand Display Evidence of Gene Duplication and Divergence of Ligand Specificity.

Parapoxvirus of red deer in New Zealand (PVNZ) is a species of the Parapoxvirus genus that causes pustular dermatitis. We identified a cluster of genes in PVNZ that encode three unique chemokine-binding proteins (CBPs) namely ORF112.0, ORF112.3 and ORF112.6. Chemokines are a large family of molecules that direct cell trafficking to sites of inflammation and through lymphatic organs. The PVNZ-CBPs were analyzed by surface plasmon resonance against a broad spectrum of CXC, CC, XC and CX3C chemokines and were found to differ in their specificity and binding affinity. ORF112.0 interacted with chemokines from the CXC, CC and XC classes of chemokines with nM affinities. The ORF112.3 showed a preference for CXC chemokines, while ORF112.6 showed pM affinity binding for CC chemokines. Structural modeling analysis showed alterations in the chemokine binding sites of the CBPs, although the core structure containing two ß-sheets and three α-helices being conserved with the other parapoxvirus CBPs. Chemotaxis assays using neutrophils and monocytes revealed inhibitory impact of the CBPs on cell migration. Our results suggest that the PVNZ-CBPs are likely to have evolved through a process of gene duplication and divergence, and may have a role in suppressing inflammation and the anti-viral immune response.

The C-terminus of viral vascular endothelial growth factor-E partially blocks binding to VEGF receptor-1.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family members play important roles in embryonic development and angiogenesis during wound healing and in pathological conditions such as tumor formation. Parapoxviruses express a new member of the VEGF family which is a functional mitogen that specifically activates VEGF receptor (VEGFR)-2 but not VEGFR-1. In this study, we show that deletion from the viral VEGF of a unique C-terminal region increases both VEGFR-1 binding and VEGFR-1-mediated monocyte migration. Enzymatic removal of O-linked glycosylation from the C-terminus also increased VEGFR-1 binding and migration of THP-1 monocytes indicating that both the C-terminal residues and O-linked sugars contribute to blocking viral VEGF binding to VEGFR-1. The data suggest that conservation of the C-terminal residues throughout the viral VEGF subfamily may represent a means of reducing the immunostimulatory activities associated with VEGFR-1 activation while maintaining the ability to induce angiogenesis via VEGFR-2.

VEGF Receptor-2 Activation Mediated by VEGF-E Limits Scar Tissue Formation Following Cutaneous Injury.

Objective: Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family members are critical regulators of tissue repair and depending on their distinct pattern of receptor specificity can also promote inflammation and scarring. This study utilized a receptor-selective VEGF to examine the role of VEGF receptor (VEGFR)-2 in scar tissue (ST) formation. Approach: Cutaneous skin wounds were created in mice using a 4 mm biopsy punch and then treated until closure with purified VEGF-E derived from orf virus stain NZ-2. Tissue samples were harvested to measure gene expression using quantitative PCR and to observe ST formation through histological examination and changes in cell populations by immunofluorescence. Results: VEGFR-2-activation with VEGF-E increased expression of anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-10 and reduced macrophage infiltration and myofibroblast differentiation in wounded skin compared with controls. VEGF-E treatment also increased microvascular density and improved pericyte coverage of blood vessels in the healing wounds. The ST that formed following treatment with VEGF-E was reduced in size and showed improved collagen structure. Innovation: The role of VEGFR-2 activation in wound epithelialization and angiogenesis is well established; but its contribution to ST formation is unclear. This study tests the effect of a selective VEGFR-2 activation on ST formation following cutaneous wounding in a murine model. Conclusion: VEGFR-2 stimulation can enhance the quality of skin repair, at least, in part, through the induction of IL-10 expression and dampening of wound inflammation and fibrosis. Therapies that selectively activate VEGFR-2 may therefore be beneficial to treat impaired healing or to prevent excess scarring.