Trophic dynamics of methylmercury and trace elements in a remote Amazonian Lake.

Information on pollutant trophodynamics can be crucial for public health, as contaminated food consumption may lead to deleterious effects. This study was performed in Puruzinho Lake, a remote body of water in the Brazilian Amazon from which a riparian human population obtains an important part of its animal protein intake. Samples from 92 individuals, comprising 13 species and four trophic guilds (iliophagous, planktivorous, omnivorous, and piscivorous fish) were analysed for the determination of trace elements (Fe, Cr, Mn, Ni, Zn, Ca, Sr, Cd, Sn, Tl and Pb) and methylmercury concentrations. Samples from the same individuals had already been analysed for stable isotope (SI) measurements (δ13C and δ15N) in a previous investigation and the SI data have been statistically treated with those generated in this study for the evaluation of trophic dynamics of contaminants. Methylmercury was the only analyte that biomagnified, presenting TMF values of 4.65 and 4.55 for total and resident ichthyofauna, respectively. Trace elements presented either trophic dilution or independence from the trophic position, constituting a behaviour that was coherent with that found in the scientific literature. The similarity between Ni behaviour through the trophic web to that of essential elements contributes to the discussion on the essentiality of this metal to fish. Considering the Non-cancer Risk Assessment, the calculated Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) values were higher than 1.0 for all analysed individuals for methylmercury, as well as for only one individual for nickel. No other analyte rendered THQ values higher than 1.0.

Mapping carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of fingernails to demonstrate a rural-urban nutrition transition in the Center-West, Northeast, and Amazon regions of Brazil.

OBJECTIVE: The main objective of this study is to investigate diet patterns among rural and urban populations of the Center-West, Northeast, and Amazon regions of Brazil through the carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of fingernails, recognizing that the extent of market integration is a key driver of food consumption. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In the Center-West, Northeast, and Amazon regions of Brazil, fingernails were sampled in clusters encompassing a major city, town, and rural village. A total of 2,133 fingernails were analyzed. Fingernails were clipped by donors using fingernail clippers. In the laboratory, samples were cleaned then weighed in small tin capsules before being isotopically analyzed for carbon and nitrogen. RESULTS: The overall mean δ13 C and δ15 N were -19.7 ± 2.8‰ and 10.6 ± 1.1‰, respectively. In the more remote villages, where access to food markets is more challenging, lower δ13 C prevails, suggesting that Brazilian staple foods (rice, beans, and farinha) still dominate. In areas with easier access to food markets, δ13 C values were higher, suggesting a change to a diet based on C4 plants, typical of a Brazilian supermarket diet. The variability among inhabitants in the same location expressed by a significant inverse correlation between δ13 C and δ15 N fingernail values suggested that "market integration" does not affect everyone equally in each community. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: The nutrition transition has not yet reached some remote villages in these regions of Brazil or that the nutrition transition has not yet reached all residents of these remote villages. On the other hand, in several villages there is a considerable adherence to the supermarket diet or that some residents of these villages are already favoring processed food.

Seasonal and drought-related changes in leaf area profiles depend on height and light environment in an Amazon forest.

Seasonal dynamics in the vertical distribution of leaf area index (LAI) may impact the seasonality of forest productivity in Amazonian forests. However, until recently, fine-scale observations critical to revealing ecological mechanisms underlying these changes have been lacking. To investigate fine-scale variation in leaf area with seasonality and drought we conducted monthly ground-based LiDAR surveys over 4 yr at an Amazon forest site. We analysed temporal changes in vertically structured LAI along axes of both canopy height and light environments. Upper canopy LAI increased during the dry season, whereas lower canopy LAI decreased. The low canopy decrease was driven by highly illuminated leaves of smaller trees in gaps. By contrast, understory LAI increased concurrently with the upper canopy. Hence, tree phenological strategies were stratified by height and light environments. Trends were amplified during a 2015-2016 severe El Niño drought. Leaf area low in the canopy exhibited behaviour consistent with water limitation. Leaf loss from short trees in high light during drought may be associated with strategies to tolerate limited access to deep soil water and stressful leaf environments. Vertically and environmentally structured phenological processes suggest a critical role of canopy structural heterogeneity in seasonal changes in Amazon ecosystem function.

Isoprene emission structures tropical tree biogeography and community assembly responses to climate.

The prediction of vegetation responses to climate requires a knowledge of how climate-sensitive plant traits mediate not only the responses of individual plants, but also shifts in the species and functional compositions of whole communities. The emission of isoprene gas - a trait shared by one-third of tree species - is known to protect leaf biochemistry under climatic stress. Here, we test the hypothesis that isoprene emission shapes tree species compositions in tropical forests by enhancing the tolerance of emitting trees to heat and drought. Using forest inventory data, we estimated the proportional abundance of isoprene-emitting trees (pIE) at 103 lowland tropical sites. We also quantified the temporal composition shifts in three tropical forests - two natural and one artificial - subjected to either anomalous warming or drought. Across the landscape, pIE increased with site mean annual temperature, but decreased with dry season length. Through time, pIE strongly increased under high temperatures, and moderately increased following drought. Our analysis shows that isoprene emission is a key plant trait determining species responses to climate. For species adapted to seasonal dry periods, isoprene emission may tradeoff with alternative strategies, such as leaf deciduousness. Community selection for isoprene-emitting species is a potential mechanism for enhanced forest resilience to climatic change.

Evolutionary heritage influences Amazon tree ecology.

Lineages tend to retain ecological characteristics of their ancestors through time. However, for some traits, selection during evolutionary history may have also played a role in determining trait values. To address the relative importance of these processes requires large-scale quantification of traits and evolutionary relationships among species. The Amazonian tree flora comprises a high diversity of angiosperm lineages and species with widely differing life-history characteristics, providing an excellent system to investigate the combined influences of evolutionary heritage and selection in determining trait variation. We used trait data related to the major axes of life-history variation among tropical trees (e.g. growth and mortality rates) from 577 inventory plots in closed-canopy forest, mapped onto a phylogenetic hypothesis spanning more than 300 genera including all major angiosperm clades to test for evolutionary constraints on traits. We found significant phylogenetic signal (PS) for all traits, consistent with evolutionarily related genera having more similar characteristics than expected by chance. Although there is also evidence for repeated evolution of pioneer and shade tolerant life-history strategies within independent lineages, the existence of significant PS allows clearer predictions of the links between evolutionary diversity, ecosystem function and the response of tropical forests to global change.

Mercury biomagnification and the trophic structure of the ichthyofauna from a remote lake in the Brazilian Amazon.

The present study assesses mercury biomagnification and the trophic structure of the ichthyofauna from the Puruzinho Lake, Brazilian Amazon. In addition to mercury determination, the investigation comprised the calculation of Trophic Magnification Factor (TMF) and Trophic Magnification Slope (TMS), through the measurements of stable isotopes of carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) in fish samples. These assessments were executed in two different scenarios, i.e., considering (1) all fish species or (2) only the resident fish (excluding the migratory species). Bottom litter, superficial sediment and seston were the sources used for generating the trophic position (TP) data used in the calculation of the TMF. Samples from 84 fish were analysed, comprising 13 species, which were categorized into four trophic guilds: iliophagous, planktivorous, omnivorous and piscivorous fish. The δ13C values pointed to the separation of the ichthyofauna into two groups. One group comprised iliophagous and planktivorous species, which are linked to the food chains of phytoplankton and detritus. The other group was composed by omnivorous and piscivorous fish, which are associated to the trophic webs of phytoplankton, bottom litter, detritus, periphyton, as well as to food chains of igapó (blackwater-flooded Amazonian forests). The TP values suggest that the ichthyofauna from the Puruzinho Lake is part of a short food web, with three well-characterized trophic levels. Mercury concentrations and δ13C values point to multiple sources for Hg input and transfer. The similarity in Hg levels and TP values between piscivorous and planktivorous fish suggests a comparable efficiency for the transfer of this metal through pelagic and littoral food chains. Regarding the two abovementioned scenarios, i.e., considering (1) the entire ichthyofauna and (2) only the resident species, the TMF values were 5.25 and 4.49, as well as the TMS values were 0.21 and 0.19, respectively. These findings confirm that Hg biomagnifies through the food web of Puruzinho Lake ichthyofauna. The migratory species did not significantly change mercury biomagnification rate in Puruzinho Lake; however, they may play a relevant role in Hg transport. The biomagnification rate (TMS value) in Puruzinho Lake was higher than the average values for its latitude, being comparable to TMS values of temperate and polar systems (marine and freshwater environments).

Reduced impact logging minimally alters tropical rainforest carbon and energy exchange.

We used eddy covariance and ecological measurements to investigate the effects of reduced impact logging (RIL) on an old-growth Amazonian forest. Logging caused small decreases in gross primary production, leaf production, and latent heat flux, which were roughly proportional to canopy loss, and increases in heterotrophic respiration, tree mortality, and wood production. The net effect of RIL was transient, and treatment effects were barely discernable after only 1 y. RIL appears to provide a strategy for managing tropical forest that minimizes the potential risks to climate associated with large changes in carbon and water exchange.

Amazon forest carbon dynamics predicted by profiles of canopy leaf area and light environment.

Tropical forest structural variation across heterogeneous landscapes may control above-ground carbon dynamics. We tested the hypothesis that canopy structure (leaf area and light availability) - remotely estimated from LiDAR - control variation in above-ground coarse wood production (biomass growth). Using a statistical model, these factors predicted biomass growth across tree size classes in forest near Manaus, Brazil. The same statistical model, with no parameterisation change but driven by different observed canopy structure, predicted the higher productivity of a site 500 km east. Gap fraction and a metric of vegetation vertical extent and evenness also predicted biomass gains and losses for one-hectare plots. Despite significant site differences in canopy structure and carbon dynamics, the relation between biomass growth and light fell on a unifying curve. This supported our hypothesis, suggesting that knowledge of canopy structure can explain variation in biomass growth over tropical landscapes and improve understanding of ecosystem function.

Empirical evidence for resilience of tropical forest photosynthesis in a warmer world.

Tropical forests may be vulnerable to climate change1-3 if photosynthetic carbon uptake currently operates near a high temperature limit4-6. Predicting tropical forest function requires understanding the relative contributions of two mechanisms of high-temperature photosynthetic declines: stomatal limitation (H1), an indirect response due to temperature-associated changes in atmospheric vapour pressure deficit (VPD)7, and biochemical restrictions (H2), a direct temperature response8,9. Their relative control predicts different outcomes-H1 is expected to diminish with stomatal responses to future co-occurring elevated atmospheric [CO2], whereas H2 portends declining photosynthesis with increasing temperatures. Distinguishing the two mechanisms at high temperatures is therefore critical, but difficult because VPD is highly correlated with temperature in natural settings. We used a forest mesocosm to quantify the sensitivity of tropical gross ecosystem productivity (GEP) to future temperature regimes while constraining VPD by controlling humidity. We then analytically decoupled temperature and VPD effects under current climate with flux-tower-derived GEP trends in situ from four tropical forest sites. Both approaches showed consistent, negative sensitivity of GEP to VPD but little direct response to temperature. Importantly, in the mesocosm at low VPD, GEP persisted up to 38 °C, a temperature exceeding projections for tropical forests in 2100 (ref. 10). If elevated [CO2] mitigates VPD-induced stomatal limitation through enhanced water-use efficiency as hypothesized9,11, tropical forest photosynthesis may have a margin of resilience to future warming.

Evolutionary diversity is associated with wood productivity in Amazonian forests.

Higher levels of taxonomic and evolutionary diversity are expected to maximize ecosystem function, yet their relative importance in driving variation in ecosystem function at large scales in diverse forests is unknown. Using 90 inventory plots across intact, lowland, terra firme, Amazonian forests and a new phylogeny including 526 angiosperm genera, we investigated the association between taxonomic and evolutionary metrics of diversity and two key measures of ecosystem function: aboveground wood productivity and biomass storage. While taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity were not important predictors of variation in biomass, both emerged as independent predictors of wood productivity. Amazon forests that contain greater evolutionary diversity and a higher proportion of rare species have higher productivity. While climatic and edaphic variables are together the strongest predictors of productivity, our results show that the evolutionary diversity of tree species in diverse forest stands also influences productivity. As our models accounted for wood density and tree size, they also suggest that additional, unstudied, evolutionarily correlated traits have significant effects on ecosystem function in tropical forests. Overall, our pan-Amazonian analysis shows that greater phylogenetic diversity translates into higher levels of ecosystem function: tropical forest communities with more distantly related taxa have greater wood productivity.

Composition of particulate and dissolved organic matter in a disturbed watershed of southeast Brazil (Piracicaba River basin).

The elemental and isotopic composition of particulate and dissolved organic matter was investigated in the Piracicaba River basin, São Paulo State, Brazil. Comparison of riverine organic matter from the Piracicaba River basin, a region where rivers and streams receive urban sewage and industrial effluents, with data reported for the pristine Amazon system revealed significant differences associated with anthropogenic impacts. One important difference was N enrichment in the particulate organic material of the Piracicaba basin rivers, due to (a) urban and industrial effluents, and (b) enhanced phytoplankton growth, which results from the combination of nutrient enrichment and damming of sections of the rivers. Radiocarbon concentrations were overall more depleted (older 14C age) in the Piracicaba basin rivers than in the Amazon, which may reflect the importance of soil erosion in the former. Analyses of stable and radioactive carbon isotopes and lignin-derived compounds indicated that coarse particulate organic material is composed of a mixture of soil particles and degraded organic matter from C3 and C4 vascular plants. Fine particulate organic material was composed mainly of soil particles and phytoplankton cell remains, the latter especially during low water. Ultrafiltered dissolved organic matter was the most degraded fraction according to its lignin oxidation products, and showed the greatest influence of C4 plant sources.

The Piracicaba River basin: isotope hydrology of a tropical river basin under anthropogenic stress.

The stable isotope content of samples of precipitation and of the river water throughout the Piracicaba basin in Brazil was measured over a two-year period. The isotope values of precipitation follow a consistent pattern of relatively depleted values of both deuterium and oxygen 18 during the rainy summers and enriched ones during the dry winters, with all values aligned slightly above the Global Meteoric Water Line. The isotopic composition of the river water throughout the basin shows a remarkable spatial coherence and much smaller scatter of data than those of the precipitation. The isotope composition of river water is close to that of the precipitation in the rainy season, however, with a consistent lower d-excess value by 1/1000-2/1000. This is attributed to evaporative water loss in the basin, in part an expression of the recycling of water due to the anthropogenic activity in the region. The more divergent values are recorded during high-water stages in the rivers. In many cases, the floods during the beginning of the rainy season are characterized by an enrichment of the heavy isotopes and lower d-excess values when compared to the precipitation, with the opposite situation later in the rainy season. This is interpreted as resulting from the watershed/riverflow interaction pattern, and it thus suggests that the isotope composition can monitor the hydrologic situation in the basin and its changes.

Estimation of symbiotic N2 fixation in an Amazon floodplain forest.

Sustainable management for existing Amazonian forests requires an extensive knowledge about the limits of ecosystem nutrient cycles. Therefore, symbiotic nitrogen (N2) fixation of legumes was investigated in a periodically flooded forest of the central Amazon floodplain (Várzea) over two hydrological cycles (20 months) using the 15N natural abundance method. No seasonal variation in 15N abundance (delta 15N values) in trees which would suggest differences in N2 fixation rates between the terrestrial and the aquatic phase was found. Estimations of the percentage of N derived from atmosphere (%Ndfa) for the nodulated legumes with Neptunia oleracea on the one side and Teramnus volubilis on the other resulted in mean %Ndfa values between 9 and 66%, respectively. More than half of the nodulated legume species had %Ndfa values above 45%. These relatively high N gains are important for the nodulated legumes during the whole hydrological cycle. With a %Ndfa of 4-5% for the entire Várzea forest, N2 fixation is important for the ecosystem and therefore, has to be taken into consideration for new sustainable land-use strategies in this area.

Carbon in Amazon forests: unexpected seasonal fluxes and disturbance-induced losses.

The net ecosystem exchange of carbon dioxide was measured by eddy covariance methods for 3 years in two old-growth forest sites near Santarém, Brazil. Carbon was lost in the wet season and gained in the dry season, which was opposite to the seasonal cycles of both tree growth and model predictions. The 3-year average carbon loss was 1.3 (confidence interval: 0.0 to 2.0) megagrams of carbon per hectare per year. Biometric observations confirmed the net loss but imply that it is a transient effect of recent disturbance superimposed on long-term balance. Given that episodic disturbances are characteristic of old-growth forests, it is likely that carbon sequestration is lower than has been inferred from recent eddy covariance studies at undisturbed sites.