Lorenz Fries on the defense of Avicenna, the prince of physicians: Addressed to the medics of Germany (1530).

During the 14th century CE, a pivotal shift took place in the world of medicine as its epicenter transitioned from the Middle East to Europe. The emergence of the European Renaissance sparked skepticism regarding the significance of Avicenna's contributions to the advancement of medicine. This paper explores how the rise of secularization and the Renaissance in Europe marked significant cultural transformations, fostering the spread of literacy. These societal shifts influenced the trajectory of medical thought, and Avicenna's "Canon of Medicine" received both praise and condemnation amidst the evolving intellectual landscape. In this context, Lorenz Fries composed his "Defense of Avicenna," a testament to his profound admiration for Avicenna's legacy. This paper presents an English translation of Fries' 1530 work, and introduces Fries and Avicenna's "Canon," contextualizing Fries' defense within the broader rejection of Arab-language medical texts in the 16th century. It also explores Avicenna's influence on European medicine and anatomy during the Renaissance and highlights the enduring relevance of his contributions to the annals of science. Fries' defense underscores Avicenna's methodological acumen and emphasizes the importance of a robust theoretical foundation in medical practice. Avicenna's integration of Aristotelianism with Platonism highlighted the necessity of a rigorous method informed by theory in medical analysis. Fries' defense remains relevant today, particularly in advocating for systematic medical analysis against subjective approaches. Avicenna's medical philosophy seems nested within a larger, hopeful attempt to resolve the tensions between science or naturalism and religion or spiritualism. The rejection of Avicenna reflects broader conflicts between Aristotelian and Neoplatonic traditions, suggesting a complex interplay of secularization and theological influences in shaping medical thought during the Renaissance.

What's in a name? Is an anatomical term only a name?

The purpose of a standard terminology is to facilitate communication. Thus, changing the name of an anatomical structure or the meaning of an anatomical term undermines that aspiration and cuts connections with anatomy's long history. Two types of anatomical terms are the most vulnerable to logical arguments for revision-ones that are descriptive, but viewed, at least by some, as inaccurate, and ones that contain words that are polysemic or vague. A half dozen examples of each type are discussed, including ductus deferens, glandula seminalis, articulationes costochondrales, vulva and fascia. In general, traditional terms should be preserved, but judgments about which terms are traditional should be based on five centuries of modern anatomy, not just the past several decades.

History of the hip joint pectineofoveal fold.

Although Josias Weitbrecht described the retinacula of the hip joint in his 1742 Syndesmologia, the anatomist Cesare Amantini of Perugia specifically studied the medial retinacula he referred to as the pectineofoveal fold in a late 19th-century monograph. This particular synovial fold stretches from the lesser trochanter to the osteocartilaginous junction of the femoral head along a virtual line connecting the lesser trochanter and the fovea for the ligament of the head. Although mentioned by some anatomists and radiologists, and despite its possible involvement in specific hip joint pathologies (fractures, impingements), it is surprising that Amantini's pectineofoveal fold remains ignored by most anatomy and clinical anatomy books. This study aims to verify if Cesare Amantini effectively drew attention to this synovial fold for the first time and coined the term "pectineofoveal fold," as well as determine whether most classical textbooks (i.e., published from 1890 to 2017) acknowledge the discovery and include it in the description of the hip joint. A possible evolutionary link between this synovial fold and the ambiens and pectineus muscles exists and should be discussed.

The Anatomy Act 1977 (NSW) Dissected: Review and Reform.

This column discusses the Anatomy Act 1977 (NSW) and its regulatory environment. The column begins with examining the history of anatomy regulation in the United Kingdom and Australia. It then goes on to analyse the history of the current anatomy regulation in New South Wales, pointing out areas for reform.

Science in Community: Anatomy, Academy, and Argument in the Eighteenth-Century Holy Roman Empire.

Understanding physicians as actors who implemented the early modern ideal of collective empiricism into their practices within the local contexts of everyday life, the paper explores two cases from imperial cities in southern Germany in the 1720s and 1780s in which anatomical studies were contested. By analyzing the strategies and arguments that the two physicians used to justify and continue their anatomical dissections, it focuses on their references to different kinds of (local) community and relates these references to another type of collective: membership in a scientific academy. To examine references to community, it is proposed, offers an opportunity to better understand the spread and practice of the ideal of the study of nature as a collective project and how it was intertwined with concepts and structures of order and society in the Holy Roman Empire.

The Sun Also Rises: Tracing the evolution of humanistic values in anatomy pedagogy and research, including cadaveric acquisition practices.

Anatomy has always been at the intersection of the socio-cultural and political landscape, where new ideas constantly replace older wisdom. From ancient Egyptians through the Greeks, and then the Romans, finally culminating into the European Renaissance-all the significant eras of human civilisation have left their insignia and distinct marks on the evolution of anatomical practices. Despite its utility as a tool for anatomy pedagogy and research that has proven its worth over millennia, cadaveric dissection has particularly been subject to political and social vicissitudes. A major debate about anatomical dissection lay with the ethical considerations, or its lack thereof, while acquiring corpses for demonstration in the dissection halls. From antiquity, anatomical dissection-often synonymous with medical studies-had typically been carried out on the dead bodies of executed criminals with certain laws, such as the Murder Act of 1752, facilitating such uses. Gradually, the uses of unclaimed bodies, resourced primarily from the impoverished sections of society, were also introduced. However, these body acquisition protocols often missed the crucial element of humanism and ethical considerations, while knowledge augmentation was taken as sufficient reasoning. Unfortunately, a gross disregard towards humanistic values promulgated heinous and illegal practices in acquiring corpses, including grave robbery and even murders like in the case of Burke and Hare murders of 1828. Follow-up legislation, such as the Anatomy Act of 1832, and comparable laws in other European nations were passed to curb the vile. What distils from such a historical discourse on humane values in anatomy dissection, or medical science in general, is that the growth and integration of humanism in anatomy have never been linear, but there were intermittent and, yet, significant disruptions in its timeline. For example, there were serious human rights violations in anatomical practices during the Third Reich in Germany that perpetrated the holocaust. The medical community has kept evolving and introducing new moral values and principles while using such egregious events as lessons, ultimately resulting in the Declaration of Helsinki in 1964. This article revisits the heterogeneous journey of integrating humanistic values in anatomy practice. Such humanistic traits that, like medical science, have also developed over centuries through the inputs of physicians, researchers, and philosophers-from Greece to modernity with an important stopgap at the Renaissance-are a fascinating lore that deserves to be re-envisioned through the lens of contemporary values and ethos. In parallel to human medicine, humanistic values continue to influence veterinary medicine, a welcome development, as our society condemns animal cruelty in any form. There are lessons to be learned from this historical journey of how humanism shaped many of the concepts that anatomists use now. Finally, and most importantly, it might prevent the medical community from repeating the same mistakes by cautioning against the traps that are there, and in a convoluted world where morality as such is eroding from our social fabric, will always be there. Such historical account acts as a righteous, ethical, and contextual compass to guide the existing and upcoming anatomists in discerning between light and dark, right and wrong, and roads-to be or not to be-taken.

Medical specimens and the erasure of racial violence: the case of Harriet Cole.

This article analyses the complex narrative of Harriet Cole, a 36-year-old African-American woman whose body was delivered to the anatomy department of Hahnemann Medical School in 1888. The anatomist Rufus B Weaver used her preserved remains to create a singular anatomical specimen, an intact extraction of the 'cerebro-spinal nervous system'. Initially anonymised, deracialised and unsexed, the central nervous system specimen endured for decades before her identity as a working-class woman of colour was reunited with her remains. In the 1930s, media accounts began to circulate that Harriet Cole had bequeathed her remains to the anatomist, a claim that continues to circulate uncritically in the biomedical literature today. Although we conclude that this is likely a confabulation that erased the history of violence to her autonomy and her dead body, the rhetorical possibility that Harriet Cole might have chosen to donate her body to the medical school reflects the racial, political and legal dimensions that influenced how and why the story of Harriet Cole's 'gift' served multiple purposes in the century and a half since her death.

The place of ethics in practice of anatomical sciences: have we left our dark past behind and looking towards a bright future?

INTRODUCTION: Anatomical sciences involve handling of human tissues and, therefore, application of principles of bioethics is central to anatomical practice. For a considerable period of time, anatomy was practiced without ethical norms as concept of ethics developed during second half of twentieth century. Hence, possible glimpse into contrast in ethical standards between anatomy in the past and present was deemed as an intriguing research theme. METHODS: A literature search was undertaken from indexed databases (Medline and Pubmed, Scopus, Embase, CINAHL Plus, Web of Science and Google Scholar). Relevant data were extracted from 37 articles that were selected from an initial pool of 752 articles based on search criteria set for the study. RESULTS: Prevalent anatomical practices in the past such as dissection of executed criminals, acts of vivisection, illegal procurement of human remains, use of human tissues obtained as part of war crimes and dissection of human fetuses as well as their archival were analyzed through prism of established ethical norms in present day. The observations from past were presented vis-à-vis ethical practices undertaken in present times such as use of donated bodies and/or body parts procured through legal means for dissection, adherence to ethical norms during dissection, archival of human tissues mandating stringent regulation and dignified disposal of human remains. Existing loop holes were identified and future prospects regarding ethical standards in anatomy were highlighted based on rational judgment of existing trends. CONCLUSION: The article concludes with defense on future prospects of ethics in anatomy based on documented arguments.

Rest in Pieces: Body Donation in Mid-Twentieth Century America.

By the mid-1950s, formal body donation programs began to supplant the decades-long reliance on the anatomy acts that made the bodies of the indigent and unclaimed available for medical education and research. By the mid-1980s, nearly all American medical schools relied on voluntary anatomical gifts of dead bodies. Throughout the nineteenth century, a handful of Americans requested through wills, letters, and suicide notes that their corpses be given to doctors and medical schools. The dramatic expansion of American newspapers after the Civil War helped establish bequeathing one's body as an available, albeit eccentric, afterlife. A significant shift in American deathways in the twentieth century, the rise of blood donation and organ transplantation, and a serious decline in the number of unclaimed bodies spurred anatomists finally to accept, and then to promote, this new corporeal philanthropy.

The three fetal shunts: A story of wrong eponyms.

The fetal circulatory system bypasses the lungs and liver with three shunts. The foramen ovale allows the transfer of the blood from the right to the left atrium, and the ductus arteriosus permits the transfer of the blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta. The ductus venosus is the continuation of the umbilical vein, allowing a large part of the oxygenated blood from the placenta to join the supradiaphragmatic inferior vena cava, bypassing the fetal liver and directly connecting the right atrium. These structures are named after the physicians who are thought to have discovered them. The foramen ovale and the ductus arteriosus are called the "foramen Botalli" and the "ductus Botalli," after Leonardo Botallo (1530-c. 1587). The ductus venosus is styled "ductus Arantii" after Giulio Cesare Arantius (1530-1589). However, these eponyms have been incorrectly applied as these structures were, in fact, discovered by others earlier. Indeed, the foramen ovale and the ductus arteriosus were described by Galen of Pergamon centuries earlier (c. 129-210 AD). He understood that these structures were peculiar to the fetal heart and that they undergo closure after birth. The ductus venosus was first described by Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) 3 years before Arantius. Therefore, the current anatomical nomenclature of the fetal cardiac shunts is historically inappropriate.

Historical Advancements and Evolution in Understanding Human Anatomy and Pathology: The Contribution of the Middle Ages.

Dissections and autopsies are critical for understanding human anatomy, pathology, and uncovering mechanisms of disease. This review presents an historical journey from ancient times until the late Middle Ages. The major steps and developments are summarized with key figures and events presented.

The Biography of Specimen "09.04.1954, 3.4 mm" from the "Blechschmidt Collection of Human Embryos" at Göttingen University with a Special Focus on the Production and Usage of Enlarged 3D Replicas of Embryos in the Anatomical Research on Human Embryos.

The "Blechschmidt Collection of Human Embryos" housed at the Anatomical Institute of Göttingen University (Germany) is an important historical collection of human embryo specimens whose history dates back up to the mid-1940s. It is named after its founder Prof. Erich Blechschmidt (1904-1992). A 2-year research project was conducted from 2017 to 2019 with the aim of clarifying the provenience of the human embryo specimens collected by Blechschmidt. This project not only has provided information on the origin of the specimens but, additionally, led to the discovery of photographic documents illustrating the process by which Blechschmidt built the enlarged 3-dimensional replicas of human embryos that are shown in a dedicated exhibition hall in the basement of the Anatomical Institute. Here, we report on an embryo from the Blechschmidt collection whose biography as a microscopical specimen as well as a source for objects of Blechschmidt's collection of 3-dimensional replicas of human embryos is documented by letters, lab-books, and photographs. Our report is complemented by a short historical review on the production and usage of enlarged 3-dimensional replicas in research on the anatomy of human embryo.

What's in a synonym? A nose by any other name would smell.

INTRODUCTION: Communication in the biomedical sciences and clinical practice would be clearer if everyone used the same set of technical terms. Technical vocabularies, such as international standard terminologies, are attempts to avoid common linguistic problems, such as synonymy (many names for a single entity) and polysemy (many meanings for a single term). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Efforts made in human anatomical nomenclature since the late 19th century to deal with these issues were reviewed. RESULTS: The new designations official term, equivalent term, synonym and related term are defined, and current challenges (e.g., eponyms) are identified. DISCUSSION: The addition of synonyms and related terms to the international standard anatomical terminology allows indexing of these terms to the official terms and evaluation of the relationships between terms.

General histological woes: Definition and classification of tissues.

The modern view that the human body is composed of tissues and body fluids, and that there are four basic tissue types, may be a more significant departure from Artistotle's homoeomeres, and from Bichat's membranes and tissues, than commonly appreciated. The older concepts described these body parts as structural and functional parts of organs, whereas it is now commonplace to consider a tissue to be a grouping of similar cells with a variable amount of extracellular matrix. The development of the microscope as a useful tool in human anatomy shifted focus from tissues to cells and led to changes in the definition of tissue and the classification of tissues. Not all of these changes have been consistent with observable facts: many tissues contain diverse cell types, not all "connective tissues" are proper connective tissues, and some specialized tissues are not easily classified as subtypes of one of the four basic types. Here we propose corrective measures, including re-recognition of compound tissues, cataloging all adult human tissue types, and increasing the emphasis on function during the construction of a complete taxonomy of human adult tissues. Specific problems in the current scheme and a preliminary reclassification of human adult tissues are discussed.

A contextual thematic analysis of the accessory nerve in Scottish historical medical collections of the Royal Colleges of Edinburgh and Glasgow.

INTRODUCTION: The classification of the accessory nerve (CN XI) remains a source of debate; its exact function has not been fully elucidated having also an atypical morphology for a cranial nerve. A better insight into its anatomical and physiological features is of clinical relevance. The aim was to conduct a review of 18th and 19th century books from the Royal Medical/Surgical Colleges in Scotland, United Kingdom. A contextual historical analysis of the depictions and descriptions of the accessory nerve could provide insight into the disparity in the current descriptions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Online archive catalogues were systematically searched and, during site visits, resources were formally and contextually analyzed, with the information then thematically analyzed. The themes were discussed against a widely known reference textbook of the era. RESULTS: Based on the thematic analysis, the resources were categorized either as practical anatomy books or field-specific anatomy books including neuroanatomy atlases. This intended use, along with the target audience, influenced the scope and detail of information, typically with general anatomy for students in the practical resources, and specialist information in the field-specific resources. The authors' professional background also influenced the way the accessory nerve was described and/or depicted, with surgeons/physicians placing emphasis on the clinical aspects. Content variations could also be attributed to communication restrictions of the era, and associated purchasing costs. CONCLUSIONS: Although scientific advances are nowadays disseminated at a faster pace, actively bridging the gap between anatomical sciences and clinical research is still needed when considering the accessory nerve to further elucidate the mysteries of this structure.

The membranous septum revisited: A glimpse of our anatomical past.

The so-called membranous septum is the fibrous component of the septal structures within the heart. It is relatively subtle in its appearance, but of considerable significance to the understanding of cardiac function and cardiac disease, both congenital and acquired. Surprisingly, its existence was seemingly unknown until the early decades of the 19th century. At this time, those writing in the English language described it as the "undefended space," recognizing its importance in the setting of its aneurysmal dilation, and as the site of septal defects. By the initial decade of the 20th century, it had come to be recognized as the landmark to the site of atrioventricular bundle. Over the first decade of the 21st century, its clinical significance has been emphasized in the context of transcutaneous replacement of the aortic valve. In this review, we describe our own recent investigations of this fibrous part of the septal structures. At the same time, we provide a glimpse of our anatomic past, explaining how its initial description relied on the observations of young physicians taking their first steps in the investigation of cardiac anatomy.

Changes of anatomical nomenclature must be deliberate: The female external genitalia.

Anatomical terminology is a cornerstone of medical terminology and since 1895 there has been a norm (nomenclature), regularly revised, extended, and updated. The latest official version issued by the Federative International Program on Anatomical Terminology was approved by the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists in 1998 as Terminologia Anatomica (TA). Second edition of the TA (TA2) has now been prepared for approval. Each change must be meticulously discussed and considered as it affects and influences not only anatomists but also all clinicians, physicians, scientists, teachers, and students in medical fields. There are several reasons for direct and deliberate changes, but also reasons for rejection of changes that could lead to disintegration and rejection of the nomenclature revision by the expert population. The latter reasons comprise changes of terms with originally different (inappropriate/incorrect/erroneous) meanings or with originally potentially vulgar meanings that are nowadays perceived as neutral. Some examples and explanations concerning the names of the principal structures of the female external genitalia (vulva, cunnus, pudendum, labia pudenda, rima pudendi, clitoris, and perineum) and some internal ones (vagina, uterus) in Latin and Greek are given. An overview is presented of the development and frequency of their usage, mainly in ancient times but also in medieval and later texts. It is suggested that the above-stated reasons provide no fundamental argument for changing the terminology, as all the Latin terms used in TA are nowadays considered neutral.

The history of the term pudendum: Opening the discussion on anatomical sex inequality.

The anatomical terminology for the female external genitalia, "pudendum," was removed from the second edition of the Terminologia Anatomica (2019) in response to opposition of the Latin root of the word (pudere meaning "to be ashamed"). This recent revision provides an opportunity to discuss sex inequality within the history of anatomy. This viewpoint article compares the evolution of modern anatomical terminology toward clarity and precision to the stagnant non-descriptive naming of the "pudendum" to illuminate a long timeline of the societal misperception of women. Claudius Galen (129-216 BC) used the Greek αιδοίον/aidoion (from αἰδώς/aidos meaning shame, respect, or modesty) to describe both the male and female external genitalia, as he believed that men and women were isomorphic, the difference lying only in the positioning of the reproductive organs. Galen, however, was not always impartial in his comparisons, repeatedly describing the female as inferior to the male. Andreas Vesalius (1543), whose illustrations greatly influenced the study of anatomy, later drew the female genitalia as Galen described them, as internal equivalents of male genitalia, codifying female shame within anatomical terminology. While renaming "pudendum" is a noble step in support of women, changing one word will not undo generations of implicit bias and institutional oppression. We can, however, work to create culturally and psychosocially competent future physicians through the integrative study of sex and gender issues and anatomy. Through an understanding of historical context, physicians can refocus their actions on providing care in a way that leaves the patient feeling proud, not ashamed.

The pudendum and the perversion of anatomical terminology.

The definition of pudendum is external genitalia. The term pudendum is used to describe external genitalia regardless of sex. The labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, penis, scrotum, testes, and so on are all parts of the human pudenda. The female pudendum is also called the vulva. Also, nonhuman species have pudenda. Pudendum is a term that has been part of the formal anatomical nomenclature for a millennium. Recently, the meaning of pudendum has been perverted and misinterpreted as synonymous with only the vulva and to come from an etymological root term with the narrowly defined meaning "to be ashamed." The misunderstanding of pudendum is twofold. First, pudendum describes the external genitalia indiscriminate of sex; however, terms such as pudendum muliebre/pudendum femininum and pudendum virile/pudendum masculinum have been used throughout history to identify pudenda with respect to sex. Second, the meaning of the root term pudere has been taken out of context. The meaning of the root term is inclusive of respect, modesty, honesty, honor, virtue, awe, veneration, and so on and has a positive connotation rather than a negative connotation, akin to sacrum, for example. Indeed, pudendum shares its etymological root with the names of goddesses and saints (e.g., Pudicitia, Saint Pudens, Saint Pudentiana). This manuscript provides details regarding anatomical etymology and both the historical and modern use of anatomical terminology related to pudendum. Furthermore, this manuscript remedies the perversion of pudendum and, in doing so, improves the anatomical lexicon.

Intimate Connections: Marie Marguerite Biheron and Her "Little Boudoir".

This essay considers the pursuits and occupational trajectory of the Parisian anatomical modeler Marie Marguerite Biheron (1719-95), who was celebrated for her anatomical cabinet. It highlights the role of Biheron's circle of friends and supporters in nourishing her place in the anatomical world. I argue that a focus on social and affective relations, such as friendship, can enhance our understanding of the careers of female medical practitioners and medical artists like Biheron. Her case provides a useful vantage point to reconstruct how a woman, who could not rely on the support of her family nor, for most of her life, on royal patronage, could successfully engage in anatomical practice and become renowned. Casting light on early modern economies of care, Biheron's story also helps illuminate the broader significance of amicable and affective relations in the histories of medicine and natural inquiry.