Systematic assessment of fluid responsiveness during early septic shock resuscitation: secondary analysis of the ANDROMEDA-SHOCK trial.

BACKGROUND: Fluid boluses are administered to septic shock patients with the purpose of increasing cardiac output as a means to restore tissue perfusion. Unfortunately, fluid therapy has a narrow therapeutic index, and therefore, several approaches to increase safety have been proposed. Fluid responsiveness (FR) assessment might predict which patients will effectively increase cardiac output after a fluid bolus (FR+), thus preventing potentially harmful fluid administration in non-fluid responsive (FR-) patients. However, there are scarce data on the impact of assessing FR on major outcomes. The recent ANDROMEDA-SHOCK trial included systematic per-protocol assessment of FR. We performed a post hoc analysis of the study dataset with the aim of exploring the relationship between FR status at baseline, attainment of specific targets, and clinically relevant outcomes. METHODS: ANDROMEDA-SHOCK compared the effect of peripheral perfusion- vs. lactate-targeted resuscitation on 28-day mortality. FR was assessed before each fluid bolus and periodically thereafter. FR+ and FR- subgroups, independent of the original randomization, were compared for fluid administration, achievement of resuscitation targets, vasoactive agents use, and major outcomes such as organ dysfunction and support, length of stay, and 28-day mortality. RESULTS: FR could be determined in 348 patients at baseline. Two hundred and forty-two patients (70%) were categorized as fluid responders. Both groups achieved comparable successful resuscitation targets, although non-fluid responders received less resuscitation fluids (0 [0-500] vs. 1500 [1000-2500] mL; p 0.0001), exhibited less positive fluid balances, but received more vasopressor testing. No difference in clinically relevant outcomes between FR+ and FR- patients was found, including 24-h SOFA score (9 [5-12] vs. 8 [5-11], p = 0.4), need for MV (78% vs. 72%, p = 0.16), need for RRT (18% vs. 21%, p = 0.7), ICU-LOS (6 [3-11] vs. 6 [3-16] days, p = 0.2), and 28-day mortality (40% vs. 36%, p = 0.5). Only thirteen patients remained fluid responsive along the intervention period. CONCLUSIONS: Systematic assessment allowed determination of fluid responsiveness status in more than 80% of patients with early septic shock. Fluid boluses could be stopped in non-fluid responsive patients without any negative impact on clinical relevant outcomes. Our results suggest that fluid resuscitation might be safely guided by FR assessment in septic shock patients. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier, NCT03078712. Registered retrospectively on March 13, 2017.

Variability in usual care fluid resuscitation and risk-adjusted outcomes for mechanically ventilated patients in shock.

RATIONALE: There remains significant controversy regarding the optimal approach to fluid resuscitation for patients in shock. The magnitude of care variability in shock resuscitation, the confounding effects of disease severity and comorbidity, and the relative impact on sepsis survival are poorly understood. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate usual care variability and determine the differential effect of observed and predicted fluid resuscitation volumes on risk-adjusted hospital mortality for mechanically ventilated patients in shock. METHODS: We performed a retrospective outcome analysis of mechanically ventilated patients admitted to intensive care units using the 2013 Premier Hospital Database (Premier, Inc.). Observed and predicted hospital mortality were evaluated by observed and predicted day 1 fluid administration, using the difference in predicted and observed outcomes to adjust for disease severity between groups. Both predictive models were validated using a second large administrative database (Truven Health Analytics Inc.). Secondary outcomes included duration of mechanical ventilation, hospital and ICU length of stay, and cost. RESULTS: Among 33,831 patients, observed hospital mortality was incrementally higher than predicted for each additional liter of day 1 fluid beginning at 7 L (40.9% vs. 37.2%, p = 0.008). Compared to patients that received expected (± 1.5 L predicted) day 1 fluid volumes, greater-than-expected fluid resuscitation was associated with increased risk-adjusted hospital mortality (52.3% vs. 45.0%, p < 0.0001) among all patients with shock and among a subgroup of shock patients with comorbid conditions predictive of lower fluid volume administration (47.1% vs. 41.5%, p < 0.0001). However, in patients with shock but without such conditions, both greater-than-expected (57.5% vs. 49.2%, p < 0.0001) and less-than-expected (52.1% vs. 49.2%, p = 0.037) day 1 fluid resuscitation were associated with increased risk-adjusted hospital mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Highly variable day 1 fluid resuscitation was associated with a non-uniform impact on risk-adjusted hospital mortality among distinct subgroups of mechanically ventilated patients with shock. These findings support closer evaluation of fluid resuscitation strategies that include broadly applied fluid volume targets in the early phase of shock resuscitation.

Compartment Syndrome of the Leg after Intraosseous (IO) Needle Insertion.

Intraosseous (IO) needles are used in patients who are critically ill when it is not possible to obtain venous access. While IO allows for immediate access, IO infusions are associated with complications including fractures, infections, and compartment syndrome. We present a case of an 87-year-old man who developed lower extremity compartment syndrome after receiving an IO needle insertion and had to be treated surgically with fasciotomy to correct the problem.

Determination of the Pretibial Soft Tissue Thickness in Children: Are Intraosseous Infusion Needles Long Enough?

OBJECTIVE: The EZ-IO intraosseous (IO) needle is available in 2 needle sizes for children based on the patient weight. To date, there is no published evidence validating the use of weight-based scaling in children. We hypothesized that pretibial subcutaneous tissue thickness (PSTT) does not correspond with patient weight but rather with age and body mass index (BMI). Our objective was to describe the relationship of a patient's PSTT to their weight, age, and BMI in children less than 40 kg. METHOD: One hundred patients who weighed less than 40 kg were recruited prospectively from October 2013 to April 2015 at a tertiary care pediatric emergency department. All sonographic assessments were performed by 1 of 2 emergency physicians certified in point-of-care ultrasound. A single sonographic image was taken over the proximal tibia corresponding to the site of IO insertion. In patients where both sonographers performed independent measurements, a Pearson correlation coefficient was determined. Univariate linear regression was performed to determine the relationship between age, weight, and BMI with PSTT. RESULTS: One hundred participants were recruited and ranged in age from 10 days to 14 years (mean [SD], 5.01 [3.14] years). Fifty-seven percent of participants were male. Patients' weights ranged from 3.5 to 39.3 kg (mean [SD], 21.42 [9.12] kg), and BMI ranged from 12.1 to 45.0 kg/m (mean [SD], 17.31 [4.00]). The mean (SD) PSTT across participants was 0.68 (0.2) cm. The intraclass correlation coefficient for agreement between the 2 sonographers was moderate (intraclass correlation coefficient, 0.602 [confidence interval, 0.385-0.757]). There were significant positive correlations between BMI and PSTT (r = 0.562, P = <0.001) as well as weight and PSTT (r = 0.293, P < 0.003). There was a weak correlation between age and PSTT (0.065, P = 0.521). CONCLUSIONS: Pretibial subcutaneous tissue thickness correlates most strongly with BMI, followed by weight, and weakly with age. Our findings suggest that current IO needle length recommendations should be based on BMI rather than weight. This would suggest that clinicians need to be aware that young patients in particular with large BMIs may pose problems with current weight-based needle length recommendations.

Accuracy of fluid delivery devices for the neonate: Are the measures assured?

INTRODUCTION: Delivery of accurate volumes of fluid in surgical neonates and children is crucial for the good outcome of treatment. But how accurate are the calibrations on the fluid delivery devices? AIMS: This study seeks to verify the accuracy of these devices in common use in our practice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This is a cross-sectional experimental study carried out in our center; a tertiary health facility in Southern Nigeria in May 2019. Fluid delivery devices (FDDs) used in the course of treatment of our pediatric patients were randomly included in the study. The number of drops per ml of each device was obtained by counting while the fluid dropped until a 1 ml volume was delivered. The data was then collated and analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 215 FDDs were included in this study. They comprised infusion giving set, Soluset (Burette) giving set, and blood giving set. The rate of delivery was 20 drops/ml (infusion giving sets), 60 drops/min (Burette/Soluset), and 15 drops/ml (Blood giving set). They were all in keeping with the labeled/assumed calibration in each of the types of FDDs P < 0.05. Therefore, the mean, median, and mode were the same. CONCLUSION: This study has demonstrated that the FDDs used our center are accurately calibrated and safe as they deliver volumes of fluid as labeled. The findings in this study reassure us of the dependability and accuracy of delivery of the FDDs we use in children in our center.

Resuscitation Fluid Choices to Preserve the Endothelial Glycocalyx.

This article is one of ten reviews selected from the Annual Update in Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine 2019. Other selected articles can be found online at https://www.biomedcentral.com/collections/annualupdate2019 . Further information about the Annual Update in Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine is available from http://www.springer.com/series/8901 .

Machine learning for the prediction of volume responsiveness in patients with oliguric acute kidney injury in critical care.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Excess fluid balance in acute kidney injury (AKI) may be harmful, and conversely, some patients may respond to fluid challenges. This study aimed to develop a prediction model that can be used to differentiate between volume-responsive (VR) and volume-unresponsive (VU) AKI. METHODS: AKI patients with urine output < 0.5 ml/kg/h for the first 6 h after ICU admission and fluid intake > 5 l in the following 6 h in the US-based critical care database (Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care (MIMIC-III)) were considered. Patients who received diuretics and renal replacement on day 1 were excluded. Two predictive models, using either machine learning extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) or logistic regression, were developed to predict urine output > 0.65 ml/kg/h during 18 h succeeding the initial 6 h for assessing oliguria. Established models were assessed by using out-of-sample validation. The whole sample was split into training and testing samples by the ratio of 3:1. MAIN RESULTS: Of the 6682 patients included in the analysis, 2456 (36.8%) patients were volume responsive with an increase in urine output after receiving > 5 l fluid. Urinary creatinine, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), age, and albumin were the important predictors of VR. The machine learning XGBoost model outperformed the traditional logistic regression model in differentiating between the VR and VU groups (AU-ROC, 0.860; 95% CI, 0.842 to 0.878 vs. 0.728; 95% CI 0.703 to 0.753, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: The XGBoost model was able to differentiate between patients who would and would not respond to fluid intake in urine output better than a traditional logistic regression model. This result suggests that machine learning techniques have the potential to improve the development and validation of predictive modeling in critical care research.

What is the lowest change in cardiac output that transthoracic echocardiography can detect?

BACKGROUND: In critically ill patients, changes in the velocity-time integral (VTI) of the left ventricular outflow tract, measured by transthoracic echocardiography (TTE), are often used to non-invasively assess the response to fluid administration or for performing tests assessing fluid responsiveness. However, the precision of TTE measurements has not yet been investigated in such patients. First, we aimed at assessing how many measurements should be averaged within one TTE examination to reach a sufficient precision for various variables. Second, we aimed at identifying the least significant change (LSC) of these variables between successive TTE examinations. METHODS: We prospectively included 100 haemodynamically stable patients in whom TTE examination was planned. Three TTE examinations were performed, the first and the third by one operator and the second by another one. We calculated the precision and LSC (1) within one examination depending on the number of averaged measurements and (2) between measurements performed in two successive examinations. RESULTS: In patients in sinus rhythm, averaging three measurements within an examination was enough for obtaining an acceptable precision (interquartile range highest value < 10%) for VTI. In patients with atrial fibrillation, averaging five measurements was necessary. The precision of some other common TTE variables depending on the number of measurements is provided. Between two successive examinations performed by the same operator, the LSC was 11 [5-18]% for VTI. If two operators performed the examinations, the LSC for VTI significantly increased to 14 [8-26]%. The LSC between two examinations for other TTE variables is also provided. CONCLUSIONS: Averaging three measurements within one TTE examination is enough for obtaining precise measurements for VTI in patients in sinus rhythm but not in patients with atrial fibrillation. Between two TTE examinations performed by the same operator, the LSC of VTI is compatible with the assessment of the effects of a 500-mL fluid infusion but is not precise enough for assessing the effects of some tests predicting preload responsiveness.

Efficacy of Rapid Fluid Administration Using Various Setups and Devices.

OBJECTIVES: In clinical practice, there are various methods that can be used for the rapid administration of fluid in infants and children. The current study prospectively evaluates gravity, pressure-assisted, and hand-pump methods for the rapid administration of fluid using an in vitro model. METHODS: Thirty participants were asked to deliver 500 mL of fluid using 1 of 6 setups: (1) standard blood tubing with gravity administration, (2) standard blood tubing with pressure bag maintained at 300 mm Hg, (3) standard blood tubing with pressure bag inflated to 300 mm Hg and left to flow, (4) blood tubing with in-line bulb pump, (5) blood tubing with in-line bulb pump and pressure bag, and (6) standard blood tubing with 20-mL syringe attached to the stopcock for a push-and-pull technique using a 20-mL syringe. RESULTS: The blood tubing with an in-line bulb pump to allow manual acceleration of the administration of fluid along with a pressure bag on the intravenous fluid bag achieved the fastest flow rate, requiring an average of 98 seconds to deliver 500 mL of fluid. CONCLUSIONS: When considering factors that affect fluid administration, Poiseuille's law dictates that the most important variable is the radius of the intravenous cannula, whereas the length of the cannula and the viscosity of the fluid administered are of secondary importance. With these limitations in mind, other factors may be used to speed fluid administration. Our study demonstrates the advantage of using blood tubing with the in-line bulb pump combined with a pressure bag.

Impact of resuscitation fluid bag size availability on volume of fluid administration in the intensive care unit.

BACKGROUND: Iatrogenic fluid overload is associated with increased mortality in the intensive care unit (ICU). Decisions on fluid therapy may, at times, be based on other factors than physiological endpoints. We hypothesized that because of psychological factors volume of available fluid bags would affect the amount of resuscitation fluid administered to ICU patients. METHODS: We performed a prospective intervention cross-over study at 3 Swedish ICUs by replacing the standard resuscitation fluid bag of Ringer's Acetate 1000 mL with 500 mL bags (intervention group) for 5 separate months and then compared it with the standard bag size for 5 months (control group). Primary endpoint was the amount of Ringer's Acetate per patient during ICU stay. Secondary endpoints were differences between the groups in cumulative fluid balance and change in body weight, hemoglobin and creatinine levels, urine output, acute kidney failure (measured as the need for renal replacement therapy, RRT) and 90-day mortality. RESULTS: Six hundred and thirty-five ICU patients were included (291 in the intervention group, 344 in the control group). There was no difference in the amount of resuscitation fluid per patient during the ICU stay (2200 mL [1000-4500 median IQR] vs 2245 mL [1000-5630 median IQR]), RRT rate (11 vs 9%), 90-day mortality (11 vs 10%) or total fluid balance between the groups. The daily amount of Ringer's acetate administered per day was lower in the intervention group (1040 (280-2000) vs 1520 (460-3000) mL; P = .03). CONCLUSIONS: The amount of resuscitation fluid administered to ICU patients was not affected by the size of the available fluid bags. However, altering fluid bag size could have influenced fluid prescription behavior.

The Extended Dwell Peripheral Intravenous Catheter Is an Alternative Method of NICU Intravenous Access.

BACKGROUND: Establishing vascular access is a common neonatal intensive care unit procedure. The extended dwell peripheral intravenous (EPIV) catheter is a 6-cm and 8-cm silicone catheter for peripheral vein insertion, which is a newer vascular access device than peripherally inserted central catheters (PICCs) and peripheral intravenous (PIV) catheter. Extended dwell peripheral intravenous catheters have been widely used in adults but evidence in neonates is lacking. PURPOSE: To explore indwell time, success rate, catheter-associated complications, and cost among EPIV catheters, PICCs, and PIV catheters in neonates. METHODS: We retrospectively compare patient demographics, indwell time, success rate, and catheter-associated complications, and analyze the rate of hyaluronidase-treated intravenous (IV) fluid extravasation on neonates who had an EPIV catheter, a PICC, or a PIV catheter in a level III neonatal intensive care unit. We also estimate the insertion cost of these 3 vascular access devices on the basis of our hospital charges. RESULTS: Extended dwell peripheral intravenous catheters were inserted in 432 neonates with an indwell time of 4.0 ± 2.3 (mean ± SD) days. Peripherally inserted central catheters were inserted in 202 neonates with an average indwell time of 7.3 ± 4.4 (mean ± SD) days, which was longer than EPIV catheters (P < .001). Peripherally inserted central catheters had a higher success rate of 83.6% than 71.7% of EPIV catheters, meaning succeeded in lasting through the completion of therapy (P = .001). Peripherally inserted central catheters were associated with 4 cases of life-threatening complications; none was seen in the EPIV catheter group. The incidence of hyaluronidase-treated IV fluid extravasation was less in EPIV catheter recipients (1.2%) than in the PIV catheter recipients (3.9%) (P = .004); none was in the PICC group. Cost savings were noted with using an EPIV catheter. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Extended dwell peripheral intravenous catheter is a feasible option for neonatal vascular access. IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH: These data provide a baseline for future studies to explore the efficacy and effectiveness of EPIV catheter in the neonates.

Comparison of the performance of battery-operated fluid warmers.

OBJECTIVES: Warming intravenous fluids is essential to prevent hypothermia in patients with trauma, especially when large volumes are administered. Prehospital and transport settings require fluid warmers to be small, energy efficient and independent of external power supply. We compared the warming properties and resistance to flow of currently available battery-operated fluid warmers. METHODS: Fluid warming was evaluated at 50, 100 and 200 mL/min at a constant input temperature of 20°C and 10°C using a cardiopulmonary bypass roller pump and cooler. Output temperature was continuously recorded. RESULTS: Performance of fluid warmers varied with flows and input temperatures. At an input temperature of 20°C and flow of 50 mL/min, the Buddy Lite, enFlow, Thermal Angel and Warrior warmed 3.4, 2.4, 1 and 3.6 L to over 35°C, respectively. However, at an input temperature of 10°C and flow of 200 mL/min, the Buddy Lite failed to warm, the enFlow warmed 3.3 L to 25.7°C, the Thermal Angel warmed 1.5 L to 20.9°C and the Warrior warmed 3.4 L to 34.4°C (p<0.0001). CONCLUSION: We found significant differences between the fluid warmers: the use of the Buddy Lite should be limited to moderate input temperature and low flow rates. The use of the Thermal Angel is limited to low volumes due to battery capacity and low output temperature at extreme conditions. The Warrior provides the best warming performance at high infusion rates, as well as low input temperatures, and was able to warm the largest volumes in these conditions.

Comparison of cardiac output optimization with an automated closed-loop goal-directed fluid therapy versus non standardized manual fluid administration during elective abdominal surgery: first prospective randomized controlled trial.

An intraoperative automated closed-loop system for goal-directed fluid therapy has been successfully tested in silico, in vivo and in a clinical case-control matching. This trial compared intraoperative cardiac output (CO) in patients managed with this closed-loop system versus usual practice in an academic medical center. The closed-loop system was connected to a CO monitoring system and delivered automated colloid fluid boluses. Moderate to high-risk abdominal surgical patients were randomized either to the closed-loop or the manual group. Intraoperative final CO was the primary endpoint. Secondary endpoints were intraoperative overall mean cardiac index (CI), increase from initial to final CI, intraoperative fluid volume and postoperative outcomes. From January 2014 to November 2015, 46 patients were randomized. There was a lower initial CI (2.06 vs. 2.51 l min-1 m-2, p = 0.042) in the closed-loop compared to the control group. No difference in final CO and in overall mean intraoperative CI was observed between groups. A significant relative increase from initial to final CI values was observed in the closed-loop but not the control group (+ 28.6%, p = 0.006 vs. + 1.2%, p = 0.843). No difference was found for intraoperative fluid management and postoperative outcomes between groups. There was no significant impact on the primary study endpoint, but this was found in a context of unexpected lower initial CI in the closed-loop group.Trial registry number ID-RCB/EudraCT: 2013-A00770-45. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT01950845, date of registration: 17 September 2013.

How Long Is Too Long? The Prespiked Intravenous Debate.

BACKGROUND: As the number of operative cases increases, there is a greater emphasis on reducing inefficiency while maintaining patient safety. Recently, the issue of prespiking intravenous (IV) bags was raised. No study has assessed whether the risk of infection is related to the length of time a sterile (IV) fluid bag has been spiked. After completion of a pilot study revealed no microbial growth within 24 hours of an IV spike, a larger formal study was undertaken to determine whether there was an increased infection risk within 4 hours of spiking an intravenous fluid bag. METHODS: Five IV administration sets were spiked and hung in busy perioperative areas once a week for a 5-week period. Five samples were drawn from each IV set. Approximately 10 mL was collected per sample. All samples were inoculated in 2 separate growth media. If any growth was noted, the sample was marked as positive. RESULTS: A total of 125 samples were collected over a period of 5 weeks, yielding 250 specimens. No samples were excluded from the study. No growth was identified in any of the specimens. The 95% confidence interval was estimated to be 0, 0.063. DISCUSSION: There was no bacterial growth in prespiked normal saline IV bags in a perioperative environment. Thus, prespiking of normal saline IV bags in advance should pose no risk of infection to a patient if prepared within 4 hours.

An In Vitro Assessment of the Efficacy of Various IV Cannulas for the Rapid IV Fluid Administration.

OBJECTIVES: The current study prospectively evaluates the administration of fluid through commonly used vascular cannulas of various length and diameter. DESIGN: Observational, in vitro experiment. SETTING: Not applicable. SUBJECTS: No human subjects. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Fluid (500 mL) was administered via gravity flow and with pressure assistance (pressure bag set at 300 mm Hg) through various vascular cannulas including peripheral IV catheters (22 gauge, 1 inch; 20 gauge, 1.16 and 1.88 inch; and 18 gauge, 1.16 and 1.88 inch), 3-Fr central line lumens (lengths 50, 80, and 120 mm), and a 4-Fr, 10 cm Micropuncture catheter (Cook Medical, Bloomington, IN). During gravity flow, drain time decreased by approximately 50% when moving from a 22 to 20 to 18 gauge cannula and increased by approximately 20% as the catheter length increased from 50 to 80 to 120 cm. Flow rates were highest with the Micropuncture catheter, which achieved a drain time of 2.7 minutes for the 500 mL bag when infused with pressure assistance. CONCLUSIONS: In general, the delivery of crystalloid solutions through commonly used vascular cannulas was fastest with larger diameter and shorter length cannulas. Pressure-assisted flow was able to partially compensate for the increased resistance with smaller and longer catheters. The unique design of the tip of the Micropuncture catheter compensated for the increased length and allowed for rapid fluid delivery. This design may compensate for the increased length when longer catheters are needed for ultrasound-guided placement.

Comparison of Two Intraosseous Devices: The NIO Versus the EZ-IO by Novice Users-A Randomized Cross Over Trial.

BACKGROUND: During resuscitation in the field, intraosseous (IO) access may be achieved using a variety of available devices, often attempted by inexperienced users. AIM: We sought to examine the success rate and ease-of-use ratings of an IO device, the NIO® (New Intraosseous Persys Medical, Houston, TX, USA) in comparison to the Arrow® EZ-IO® (Teleflex Medical Research Triangle Park, NC, USA) by novice users. METHODS: We performed a randomized crossover trial. The study model was a porcine hind leg which was cut distally in order to expose the marrow. The Study population was composed of pre-graduate medical students without prior experience in IO use, all designated future field physicians. The students underwent instruction and practiced the use of both devices. After practice completion, each student attempted a single IO insertion with both devices sequentially in randomized fashion. Success was defined as a flow of fluid through the bone marrow after a single IO attempt. Investigators which determined the success rate were blinded to the used device. RESULTS: 50 users (33 males, 17 females) participated in the trial, mean age of 21.7 years (±1). NIO users were successful in 92% (46/50) attempts while EZ-IO user success rate was 88% (44/50). NIO success rates were comparable to those of EZ-IO (p = NS). Results were similar when examining only the initial device used. Median score of ease of use was 4 (5 point Likert scale) in both devices (p = NS). 54% (27/50) of the participants preferred using the EZ-IO over the NIO (p = NS). CONCLUSION: Novice users were equally successful in establishing IO access with the NIO® in comparison to the EZ-IO® in a porcine model.

What is the Preferred Resuscitation Fluid for Patients with Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock?

BACKGROUND: Current guidelines for the management of patients with severe sepsis and septic shock recommend crystalloids as the initial fluid solution of choice in the resuscitation of these patients. In recent years, there have been numerous studies published on the type of fluid used in the resuscitation of patients with sepsis. The primary goal of this article is to determine the preferred intravenous fluid for the resuscitation of patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. METHODS: A MEDLINE literature review was completed to identify studies that investigated the type of resuscitation fluid in the management of patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Articles included were those published in English between 2011 and 2016, enrolled human subjects, and limited to the following types: randomized controlled trial, prospective observational trial, retrospective cohort trial, and meta-analyses. All selected articles then underwent a structured review by the authors. RESULTS: Nine thousand sixty-two articles were identified in the search. After use of predetermined criteria, 17 articles were selected for review. Eleven of these were original investigations and six were meta-analyses and systemic reviews. CONCLUSION: Crystalloids are the preferred solution for the resuscitation of emergency department patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Balanced crystalloids may improve patient-centered outcomes and should be considered as an alternative to normal saline, if available. There is strong evidence that suggests semi-synthetic colloids decrease survival and should be avoided. The role of albumin in the resuscitation of patients with severe sepsis and sepsis is uncertain.

Goal-Directed Perfusion Methodology for Determining Oxygenator Performance during Clinical Cardiopulmonary Bypass.

New generation oxygenators incorporate arterial line filtration either sequential to, or directly in, the gas exchange module. This unique design may affect gas exchange performance by altering the operational characteristics of the device. The present study was designed to evaluate three oxygenators in a clinical setting using a goal-directed perfusion algorithm during cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB). After institutional review board approval, 60 adult patients undergoing cardiac surgery for acquired heart disease were matched for disease state and body size into three groups based on oxygenator type: Terumo SX18™ (n = 20), Terumo FX15™ (n = 20), and LivaNova Inspire6F™ 6 Dual (n = 20). An external arterial line filter was used with the FX15, whereas the SX18 and Inspire6F had integrated arterial filters. All perfusion, anesthetic and postoperative care management was standardized using institutional goal-directed patient management processes. Data were collected and stored according to quality improvement guidelines. There were no differences in demographics or type of surgical procedure performed among groups. The Inspire6F patients required lower fraction of inspired oxygen values as compared to the SX18 (67.9% ± 6.2% vs. 75.4% ± 6.5%, p < .005) and FX15 (79.1% ± 8.4%, p < .0001) groups. Arterial oxygen content and oxygen delivery were slightly higher in the FX15 group as compared to SX18 (13.1 ± 1.4 mL O2/dL vs. 12.4 ± 1.1 mL O2/dL, 611.1 ± 150.4 mL O2 vs. 528.2 ± 102.3 mL O2, p < .05). The FX15 patients had significantly higher CPB hematocrits compared to SX18 patients (30.3% ± 3.9% vs. 27.7% ± 2.6%, p < .05), but were not different when compared to the Inspire6F group (28.8% ± 3.5%, p < .50). There were no differences in intraoperative transfusion rates, but a higher percent of patients received postoperative transfusions in the SX18 group as compared to either FX15 or Inspire6F groups (p < .039). There were no differences in postoperative morbidity or complications in any group. In conclusion, the use of the SX18 was comparable to newer generation oxygenators in regard to gas exchange performance and the degree of hemodilution.

An Analysis of the Temperature Change in Warmed Intravenous Fluids During Administration in Cold Environments.

This nonhuman simulation study was conducted to determine the decrease in temperature that occurred to 1-L bags of normal saline in a cold environment. The bags were warmed to 39°C and administered through intravenous (IV) tubing at a set flow rate while in a cold environment. The goal was to determine if there was a significant decrease in fluid temperature from the bag to the catheter site. Three trials were completed at temperatures of 0°C, -7°C, -12°C, and 22°C (control). Each bag of normal saline was warmed to 39°C using the SoftSack IV Fluid Warmer (Smithworks Med Inc, Lindale, TX). Fluid was collected and temperatures recorded at 5-minute intervals. The results showed a statistically significant (P = .003) change in temperature between the IV bag and the administration site. The most rapid change occurred within the first 5 minutes. The temperature change was more significant with colder ambient temperatures, with an average of a 28.7°C difference at -7°C and -12°C after 30 minutes. It appears that the most significant heat loss occurs through the IV tubing itself. Therefore, it may be beneficial to insulate the tubing on a trauma patient receiving warmed IV fluids in a cold environment to help prevent hypothermia.

[Organ replacement therapy - extracorporeal liver assist devices]. / Organersatzverfahren - Leberunterstützungsverfahren.

Liver failure is a disease with a high mortality rate. Often liver transplantation is the sole therapeutic option. On the one hand, liver support systems probably support the liver to allow regeneration, on the other hand they are an option to bridge for transplantation. This article gives an overview on the clinically used liver assist devices (molecular adsorbent recirculating system [MARS], Prometheus system, single-pass albumin dialysis [SPAD], plasmapheresis) and discusses the applications in liver failure.